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Most flowering plants rely on pollinators for their reproduction. Plant-pollinator interactions, although mutualistic, involve an inherent conflict of interest between both partners and may constrain plant mating systems at multiple levels: the immediate ecological plant selfing rates, their distribution in and contribution to pollination networks, and their evolution. Here, we review experimental evidence that pollinator behaviour influences plant selfing rates in pairs of interacting species, and that plants can modify pollinator behaviour through plastic and evolutionary changes in floral traits. We also examine how theoretical studies include pollinators, implicitly or explicitly, to investigate the role of their foraging behaviour in plant mating system evolution. In doing so, we call for more evolutionary models combining ecological and genetic factors, and additional experimental data, particularly to describe pollinator foraging behaviour. Finally, we show that recent developments in ecological network theory help clarify the impact of community-level interactions on plant selfing rates and their evolution and suggest new research avenues to expand the study of mating systems of animal-pollinated plant species to the level of the plant-pollinator networks.

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The magnitude of inbreeding depression, a central parameter in the evolution of plant mating systems, can vary depending on environmental conditions. However, the underlying genetic mechanisms causing environmental fluctuations in inbreeding depression, and the consequences of this variation for the evolution of self-fertilization, have been little studied. Here, we consider temporal fluctuations of the selection coefficient in an explicit genetic model of inbreeding depression. We show that substantial variance in inbreeding depression can be generated at equilibrium by fluctuating selection, although the simulated variance tends to be lower than has been measured in experimental studies. Our simulations also reveal that purging of deleterious mutations does not depend on the variance in their selection coefficient. Finally, an evolutionary analysis shows that, in contrast to previous theoretical approaches, intermediate selfing rates are never evolutionarily stable when the variation in inbreeding depression is due to fluctuations in the selection coefficient on deleterious mutations.

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We model the evolution of plant mating systems under the joint effects of pollen discounting and pollen limitation, using a dynamic model of inbreeding depression, allowing for partial purging of recessive lethal mutations by selfing. Stable mixed mating systems occur for a wide range of parameter values with pollen discounting alone. However, when typical levels of pollen limitation are combined with pollen discounting, stable selfing rates are always high but less than 1 (0.9

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In gynodioecious plant species, females are expected to have more resources available for maturing seeds because pistillate flowers are smaller, do not produce pollen, and are thus less costly that perfect flowers. The potential female advantage arising from more abundant resources is, however, likely to vary depending on whether seed production is limited by resource or pollen availability. Here we experimentally investigated the influence of pollen and resource limitation on female advantage in a gynodioecious species using two levels of pollination. Total seed production of females was always greater than that of hermaphrodites: females produced more flowers and more fruits that contained similar numbers of seeds of similar mass. Under low pollination, female and hermaphrodite plants allocated resources to increased flower production rather than to increased seed size or quality. We did not detect any influence of pollen or resource limitation on female advantage, which remained similar under low (= abundant resources) and full pollination. Outcrossed fruits performed better than selfed fruits when the same plant received both selfed and outcrossed pollen on different flowers. These differences were not greater under high pollination, possibly because resources available for each fruit did not differ between our pollen intensity treatments.

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Stable polymorphisms are commonly observed in experimental bacterial populations grown in homogeneous media. Evidence is accumulating that metabolic interactions might be the main mechanism underlying the emergence and maintenance of such polymorphisms. To date, however, attempts to model the evolution of bacterial polymorphism have not considered metabolism as a possible component of polymorphism maintenance. Here, we propose a simulation approach to model the evolution of selected polymorphisms in a bacterial population. Using recent knowledge of the relationship between bacterial fitness and metabolism, we build a simple metabolic model and test the effect of resource competition on polymorphism. Without making an a priori hypothesis on fitness functions, we show that stable polymorphic situations could be observed under high nutrient competition, and we propose a functional, metabolism-based explanation to the debated issue of polymorphism maintenance.

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Laurent (1996a, Médecine/sciences12, 774-785; 1996b, Biochem. J.318, 35-39; 1998, Bio-phys. Chem.72, 211-222) proposed a model for the dynamics of diseases of the central nervous system caused by prions. It is based on the protein-only hypothesis (Prusiner et al., 1981, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.78, 6675-6679), which assumes that infection can be spread by particular proteins (prions) that can exist in two forms that share the same sequence, but have a different structure. The normal form is harmless, while the infectious isoform of the prion protein catalyses a transconformation from the native isoform to itself within a specialized compartment of the brain cells. This paper systematically explores the model behavior with the aim of quantifying the fundamental parameters characterizing the dynamics of prion infection. To this end we use data from the literature to fix orders of magnitude for the rates of synthesis and degradation of the native form of prion protein and for the shape of the autocatalytic function. The dynamical behavior is classified with respect to two unknown parameters (bifurcation analysis): the rate of spontaneous transconformation and the rate of output of the infectious isoform from the specialized compartment. We thus find that the bistability properties evidenced by Laurent are confined to a certain range of parameters and that permanent oscillations of the two isoforms concentrations are possible. The bifurcation analysis allows us to estimate approximate ranges for the values of the two unknown parameters and consequently to derive incubation times and compare them with actual data for hamster. Also, our study predicts that the output rate of the infectious isoform is relatively insensitive to variations of model parameters.

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