RESUMEN
La implementación de los estudios universitarios al Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior (EEES), se ha regulado en España con la publicación del Real Decreto 1393/2007, que establece la ordenación de las enseñanzas universitarias oficiales de Grado, Master y Doctorado. En este contexto, el Ministerio de Educación ya ha aprobado los primeros estudios de Grado en Farmacia adaptados al EEES de algunas universidades españolas. El objetivo de nuestro trabajo es analizar los planes de estudio de los títulos de Grado en Farmacia que han sido aprobados. Hemos estudiado la planificación de las enseñanzas en cuanto a los Módulos requeridos para la verificación del título oficial, así como otros Módulos propios. También hemos analizado el porcentaje de carga lectiva de las materias en el plan de estudios, atendiendo a su carácter: básicas, obligatorias y optativas. Por último, hemos examinado la selección de las materias que constituyen los módulos. Podemos concluir que los planes de estudio de las universidades analizadas presentan una gran uniformidad en cuanto a los contenidos formativos. La mayor diversidad en la trayectoria curricular tiene lugar en la selección de las asignaturas optativas, así como en los Módulos de carácter humanístico, estos últimos frecuentes en las universidades privadas(AU)
To comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) in Spain, a law was published (RD 1393/2007) which regulates official studies for degrees, masters and doctorates. Several new Pharmacy degrees have been approved by the Ministry for Education according to this law, both in public and private universities. The objective of our work was to analyse these Pharmacy degrees, paying attention to the content of the various modules, as well as to the relative percentage of teaching load within each topic in the curricula according to its nature: basic, obligatory and optional. We can conclude that the degrees of all universities analysed are very homogeneous, particularly in regard to the formative content of the established modules, in accordance to the general guidelines. The greater variation seems to be located in optional subjects as well as in Art and Humanities modules, the latter being quite common in private universities(AU)
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Educación en Farmacia/métodos , Educación de Postgrado en Farmacia/métodos , Educación de Postgrado en Farmacia/tendencias , Educación en Farmacia/legislación & jurisprudencia , Docentes/organización & administración , Educación en Farmacia/historia , Educación en Farmacia/normas , Educación de Postgrado en Farmacia/organización & administración , Educación de Postgrado en Farmacia/normasRESUMEN
La implantación de los nuevos grados, dentro del EEES, supone un aumento en la participación del alumno en su aprendizaje y la introducción de nuevas estrategias docentes. Debido a ello, nuestro objetivo ha sido valorar la opinión de los alumnos sobre tres aspectos: las estrategias docentes utilizadas en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, la metodología de evaluación y la importancia que otorgan a la adquisición de competencias transversales, como hablar en público o trabajar en equipo. Para ello, se ha realizado un estudio, a través de una encuesta voluntaria y anónima a los alumnos de tres asignaturas de Farmacia. De los datos obtenidos destacamos que un 93.1% afirmó que la asistencia a clase ayuda a comprender la asignatura y que un 82.8% consideró que la participación activa en el aula le ayuda a aprender. Respecto a las estrategias docentes, los alumnos eligieron las explicaciones del profesor y la pizarra como el método más útil para su aprendizaje, quedando en segundo lugar la realización de ejercicios, prácticas y en último lugar, las presentaciones en Power Point. Como conclusión, los alumnos valoran positivamente aquellas estrategias que fomentan su participación, así como el sistema de evaluación continua. Sin embargo, hemos de resaltar la alta valoración otorgada a las explicaciones del profesor en la pizarra. Por ello, los datos obtenidos deberían hacernos reflexionar sobre la importancia de incluir nuevas estrategias docentes que fomenten la participación del alumno, pero sin olvidar, el valor del que quizá sea el instrumento docente más antiguo, la pizarra y el profesor(AU)
The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) will change our teaching methodology with the implementation of new teaching strategies and greater participation of students in the learning process. The objective of our study is to evaluate the students views in three main areas: a) teaching strategies promoted by the lecturer for the teaching/learning process, b) evaluation methods and c) achieve good competence in other areas such as oral communication skills or team-work. Thus we designed a questionnaire which was filled by Pharmacy students from various years (n=118; 40.5% males and 59.5% females) registered in several subjects. Analysis of data revealed that 93.1% considered that attendance to lectures helped them to understand the topics covered. A good proportion (82.8%) was also of the view that participating in lectures was a good aid to learning. The students valued the teachers explanations and the use of the blackboard as the most useful for them to learn followed by practicals and exercises and lastly by PowerPoint presentations. Our data suggest that students value strategies that make them participate in their own learning process as well as a system of continuing evaluation. The results obtained highlight the importance of teaching strategies which stimulate student participation but also the high value the students allocate to the most classic and characteristic features of any classroom: teacher and blackboard(AU)
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Docentes/normas , Docentes , Aprendizaje/ética , Estrategias de Salud , Toxicología/educación , Química/educación , Fisiología/educación , Encuesta Socioeconómica , Competencia Profesional/normasRESUMEN
Tachykinin NK2 receptors are implicated in nociception and the control of intestinal motility. Here we examined their involvement in responses of spinal lumbosacral neurons with colon input to distension of normal or inflamed colon in anesthetized rats. The responses of single neurons to colorectal distension (5-80 mmHg), to electrical stimulation of the pelvic nerve (bypassing sensory receptors) and to somatic stimulation were characterized. The effect of cumulative doses of an NK2 receptor antagonist, MEN 11420 (10-1000 microg kg(-1) IV), on responses to these stimuli was tested in control conditions (n=6), or 45 min after intracolonic instillation of acetic acid (n=6). After colonic inflammation, neuronal responses to colorectal distension and pelvic nerve stimulation were significantly greater. MEN 11420 dose-dependently inhibited the enhanced responses to colorectal distension after inflammation (ID50=402+/-14 microg kg(-1)), but had no significant effect on responses to pelvic nerve stimulation or distension of the normal colon, suggesting a peripheral action selective for the inflamed colon. We conclude that MEN 11420 possesses peripheral anti-hyperalgesic effects on neuronal responses to colorectal distension. These results provide a neurophysiological basis for a possible use of tachykinin NK2 receptor antagonists in treating abdominal pain in irritable bowel syndrome patients.
Asunto(s)
Colitis/patología , Neuronas/patología , Receptores de Neuroquinina-2/efectos de los fármacos , Médula Espinal/metabolismo , Animales , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Estimulación Eléctrica , Femenino , Péptidos Cíclicos/farmacología , Células del Asta Posterior/efectos de los fármacos , Ratas , Ratas Wistar , Receptores de Neuroquinina-2/antagonistas & inhibidores , Médula Espinal/citologíaRESUMEN
Studies in mice lacking genes encoding for substance P or its receptor (NK1), or with NK1 antagonists, have shown that this system contributes to nociception, but the data are complex. Here, we have further examined the role of NK1 receptors in pain and hyperalgesia by comparing nociceptive responses to mechanical and chemical stimulation of viscera and the resulting hyperalgesia and inflammation in NK1 knockout (-/-) and wild-type (+/+) mice. We concentrated on visceral nociception because substance P is expressed by a much greater proportion of visceral than cutaneous afferents. NK1 -/- mice showed normal responses to visceral mechanical stimuli, measured as behavioural responses to intraperitoneal acetylcholine or hypertonic saline or reflex responses to colon distension in anaesthetized mice, although -/- mice failed to encode the intensity of noxious colon distensions. In contrast, NK1 -/- mice showed profound deficits in spontaneous behavioural reactions to an acute visceral chemical stimulus (intracolonic capsaicin) and failed to develop referred hyperalgesia or tissue oedema. However, in an identical procedure, intracolonic mustard oil evoked normal spontaneous behaviour, referred hyperalgesia and oedema in -/- mice. The inflammatory effects of capsaicin were abolished by denervation of the extrinsic innervation of the colon in rats, whereas those of mustard oil were unchanged, showing that intracolonic capsaicin evokes neurogenic inflammation, but mustard oil does not. Tests of other neurogenic inflammatory stimuli in NK1 -/- mice revealed impaired behavioural responses to cyclophosphamide cystitis and no acute reflex responses or primary hyperalgesia to intracolonic acetic acid. We conclude that NK1 receptors have an essential role mediating central nociceptive and peripheral inflammatory responses to noxious stimuli that evoke neurogenic inflammation, and modulating responses to noxious mechanical stimuli. We propose that two separate hyperalgesia pathways exist, one of which is NK1 receptor dependent, whereas the other does not require intact substance P/NK1 signalling.
Asunto(s)
Hiperalgesia/fisiopatología , Nociceptores/fisiopatología , Dolor/fisiopatología , Receptores de Neuroquinina-1/genética , Sustancia P/metabolismo , Aferentes Viscerales/fisiopatología , Ácido Acético/farmacología , Animales , Conducta Animal/efectos de los fármacos , Conducta Animal/fisiología , Capsaicina/farmacología , Colon/efectos de los fármacos , Colon/inervación , Colon/fisiopatología , Ciclofosfamida/farmacología , Cistitis/inducido químicamente , Cistitis/patología , Cistitis/fisiopatología , Femenino , Hiperalgesia/inducido químicamente , Inflamación/inducido químicamente , Inflamación/patología , Inflamación/fisiopatología , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , Planta de la Mostaza , Nociceptores/efectos de los fármacos , Nociceptores/patología , Dolor/inducido químicamente , Estimulación Física , Extractos Vegetales/farmacología , Aceites de Plantas , Receptores de Neuroquinina-1/metabolismo , Vejiga Urinaria/efectos de los fármacos , Vejiga Urinaria/inervación , Vejiga Urinaria/fisiopatología , Aferentes Viscerales/efectos de los fármacos , Aferentes Viscerales/patologíaRESUMEN
Los receptores de N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA) parecen desempeñar una función poco importante en las respuestas nociceptivas provocadas por la estimulación aguda de tejidos somáticos normales, interviniendo, eso sí, en las respuestas hiperalgésicas que aparecen después de una lesión periférica o inflamación. Estudios anteriores de este laboratorio han demostrado la existencia de diferencias importantes en la organización neural de las rutas nociceptivas somáticas y viscerales. En este caso, hemos explorado la función de los re c e p t o res de NMDA en el procesamiento de los estímulos dolorosos viscerales frente a los estímulos dolorosos somáticos. Canulamos cerca de la vejiga el uréter izquierdo de ratas Wistar hembras adultas anestesiadas con fentobarbitona (50 mg.kg- 1 i.p.) La distensión gradual del uréter (30 s, 25-80 mmHg) provocó un aumento de la presión arterial. Esa respuesta fue inhibida de una form a dependiente de la dosis por quetamina y memantina, dos sustancias que bloquean los canales de iones de los receptores de NMDA (DI5 0 = 2,4 ñ 1,6 y 14,5 ñ 1,3 mg.kg- 1, i.v.), así como por Mrz 2/576, un antagonista del sitio de la glicina de Merz (DI5 0 = 0,2 ñ 0,2 mg.kg- 1). Los estímulos graduales provocados por un pellizco (30s, 2-4 N) en la pata trasera provocaron una respuesta similar de la presión, si bien dicha respuesta no se vio afectada por la quetamina (hasta 10 mg.kg- 1). Tampoco Mrz 2/576 influyó en la re spuesta a los pellizcos dolorosos, mientras que la memantina (DI5 0 = 17 ñ 12 mg.kg- 1) sí inhibió la respuesta a ese tipo de estímulo. Sin embargo, en el rango de dosis utilizado, ni la quetamina ni Mrz 2/576 inhibieron la re spuesta de la presión a un estímulo de origen no nociceptivo (oclusión carótida bilateral), mientras que la memantina sí la inhibió. Por tanto, los efectos de la memantina se deban probablemente a una acción cardiovascular inespecífica. Estos resultados demuestran que los antagonistas de los receptores de NMDA inhiben los reflejos nociceptivos provocados en el uréter normal, y sugieren que los receptore s de NMDA están implicados en el procesamiento de los estímulos nociceptivos agudos en las vísceras. Hemos concluido que la estimulación aguda del tejido visceral normal provoca intensas respuestas por activación de mecanismos neurales mediados por los re c e p t o res de NMDA. No obstante, en las rutas somáticas estos mecanismos se activan sólo ante un estímulo periférico de mayor intensidad, como el producido por una lesión o inflamación. 1999 Asociación Internacional para el Estudio del Dolor (AU)
Asunto(s)
Animales , Femenino , Ratas , Nociceptores , Receptores de N-Metil-D-Aspartato , N-Metilaspartato/farmacología , Cateterismo , Uréter , Ketamina/farmacología , Memantina/farmacología , Presión Sanguínea , Hipertensión/inducido químicamente , Ratas Wistar , Bloqueo Nervioso AutónomoRESUMEN
Single unit electrical activity has been recorded from 107 neurones excited by electrical stimulation of the pelvic nerve in or around lamina X of the L6-S1 spinal cord in anaesthetised rats. Responses to colorectal distension (CRD; 30 s, 5-80 mmHg) and to somatic electrical and mechanical stimulation were characterised. Of 107 neurones excited by pelvic nerve stimulation, 58 (54%) were affected by CRD: 46 neurones were excited (39 with a sustained response and 7 with an on-off response) and 12 neurones were inhibited. The vast majority of the neurones affected by CRD (54/58) had nociceptive somatic receptive fields. Neurones excited by CRD showed graded stimulus response functions in the noxious range (20-80 mmHg), except for two neurones which only encoded stimulus intensity below 20 mmHg. Neurones inhibited by CRD had significantly larger somatic receptive fields, and more superficial recording sites than those excited by CRD. A group of 12 neurones with sustained excitatory responses to CRD were characterised before and 45 min after intracolonic instillation of 1 ml 0.6% acetic acid. Colon inflammation provoked a significant increase in responses to CRD and to pelvic nerve stimulation (n=12), but no significant change in responses to pinch of their somatic receptive field (n=10). We conclude that of these neurones, the population with excitatory sustained responses to CRD are those likely responsible for processing information leading to acute pain sensations from the colon, and also show central sensitisation after colon inflammation, suggesting they play an important role in development of colonic hyperalgesia.
Asunto(s)
Vías Aferentes/fisiopatología , Colitis/fisiopatología , Colon/inervación , Colon/fisiopatología , Células del Asta Posterior/fisiopatología , Médula Espinal/fisiología , Animales , Colon/patología , Estimulación Eléctrica , Femenino , Plexo Hipogástrico/fisiopatología , Nociceptores/fisiopatología , Dolor/fisiopatología , Ratas , Ratas Wistar , Médula Espinal/patologíaRESUMEN
Neurogenic vasodilation in cranial arteries may be an important mechanism in the pathogenesis of migraine headache. We describe a novel, in vitro assay to characterise neurogenic vasodilator responses in endothelium-denuded segments of rabbit isolated basilar artery, with particular focus on calcitonin-gene related peptide (CGRP). In arterial segments precontracted with prostaglandin F(2alpha), relaxations evoked by exogenously applied alphaCGRP (EC(50)=2.9 nM) were inhibited by alphaCGRP-(8-37) (pA(2)=6.49) or by desensitisation resulting from prior exposure to alphaCGRP. Relaxations evoked by exogenously applied vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) (EC(50)=2.5 nM) were inhibited by VIP-(7-28) 1 microM. The 5-HT(1) receptor agonists L-771,331 ((3S)-3[N-(S)-alpha-methylbenzyl]aminomethyl-(S)-1-[2-(5-(2-oxo-1, 3-oxazolidin-4-ylmethyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)ethyl]pyrrolidine) and sumatriptan exerted contractile effects (EC(50)=293 and 95 nM, respectively). In neurogenic experiments, vasodilation evoked by electrical field stimulation was markedly attenuated by pre-treatment with capsaicin (10 microM) or by prior CGRP receptor desensitisation and to a lesser extent by pre-treatment with VIP-(7-28) 1 microM. L-771,331 (100 nM) exerted a weak inhibitory effect, marked only by a short reduction in the recovery time (post-electrical stimulation) and sumatriptan (30 nM) had no effect. The neurogenic response was potentiated by alphaCGRP-(8-37) 1 microM (reversible on wash-out). Short application (5-10 min) of capsaicin (10 microM) produced vasodilation that was inhibited by alphaCGRP-(8-37) 1 microM. These data suggest that electrically evoked neurogenic vasodilation in rabbit basilar artery has a large component resulting from the release of sensory neuropeptides in particular CGRP and a smaller component involving the release of VIP.
Asunto(s)
Arteria Basilar/efectos de los fármacos , Vasodilatación/efectos de los fármacos , Animales , Arteria Basilar/inervación , Arteria Basilar/fisiología , Péptido Relacionado con Gen de Calcitonina/farmacología , Péptido Relacionado con Gen de Calcitonina/fisiología , Antagonistas del Receptor Peptídico Relacionado con el Gen de la Calcitonina , Capsaicina/farmacología , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Endotelio Vascular/fisiología , Humanos , Técnicas In Vitro , Masculino , Oxazoles/farmacología , Fragmentos de Péptidos/farmacología , Pirrolidinas/farmacología , Conejos , Receptores de Péptido Intestinal Vasoactivo/antagonistas & inhibidores , Agonistas de Receptores de Serotonina/farmacología , Sumatriptán/farmacología , Péptido Intestinal Vasoactivo/farmacología , Vasoconstricción/efectos de los fármacos , Vasoconstrictores/farmacologíaRESUMEN
The generation of transgenic 'knock-out' mice which lack genes relevant to pain is becoming increasing common. However, only one visceral pain model, the writhing test, is available in mice. The aim of this study was to adapt cyclophosphamide cystitis, a model of inflammatory visceral pain described in rats, for use in mice, and to characterise its behavioural effects. The toxic metabolites of systemically-administered cyclophosphamide are excreted in the urine, and induce bladder inflammation. We compared the effects of cyclophosphamide (100 and 300 mg/kg i.p., 4 h survival period) and vehicle (saline) in male mice on spontaneous behaviour (4 h continuous video-tape, and a 5-min Open Field test after 4 h). Involvement of the urinary bladder and other abdominal tissues was assessed by macroscopic examination and measurement of Evan's Blue plasma extravasation. Cyclophosphamide (300 mg/kg) produced significant changes in behaviour, including 22 +/- 6 min of 'crises' of visceral pain-related behaviour and a 53% reduction in activity, and also induced haemorrhage and substantial plasma extravasation in the bladder, but no change in other abdominal tissues. We conclude that cyclophosphamide cystitis has many advantages as a model of sub-acute, inflammatory visceral pain in mice. It does not require surgery or intubation, and we have found it to produce consistent, reproducible and quantifiable behavioural changes, which are significantly correlated with the degree of bladder inflammation in the absence of inflammation of other abdominal tissues. Copyright 1999 European Federation of Chapters of the International Association for the Study of Pain.
RESUMEN
OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: To study the antinociceptive effects of metamizol in a rat model of ureteric calculosis. SUBJECTS: Adult female Wistar rats (n = 40). TREATMENT: Metamizol was given i.p. 50-100 mg/kg, 3 times daily for 4 days for behavioural testing, and 25-100 mg/kg i.v. whilst recording peristalsis or dorsal horn neurons. METHODS: An artificial stone was induced in one ureter. In 3 separate groups of stone-implanted rats, behaviour was recorded continuously on video tape, ureteric peristalsis or the electrical activity of single nociceptive dorsal horn neurons with ureteric input was recorded under anaesthesia. Data were compared with analysis of variance. RESULTS: Metamizol inhibited the behavioural visceral crises, the abnormal ureteric peristalsis and the activity of nociceptive dorsal horn neurons. CONCLUSIONS: Metamizol has central antinociceptive effects on the pain produced by a ureteric stone, and an additional spasmolytic effect on the hyperperistalsis produced by the stone.