RESUMEN

Africa's water needs are often supported by eutrophic water bodies dominated by cyanobacteria posing health threats to riparian populations from cyanotoxins, and Lake Victoria is no exception. In two embayments of the lake (Murchison Bay and Napoleon Gulf), cyanobacterial surveys were conducted to characterize the dynamics of cyanotoxins in lake water and water treatment plants. Forty-six cyanobacterial taxa were recorded, and out of these, fourteen were considered potentially toxigenic (i.e., from the genera Dolichospermum, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Pseudanabaena and Raphidiopsis). A higher concentration (ranging from 5 to 10 µg MC-LR equiv. L−1) of microcystins (MC) was detected in Murchison Bay compared to Napoleon Gulf, with a declining gradient from the inshore (max. 15 µg MC-LR equiv. L−1) to the open lake. In Murchison Bay, an increase in Microcystis sp. biovolume and MC was observed over the last two decades. Despite high cell densities of toxigenic Microcystis and high MC concentrations, the water treatment plant in Murchison Bay efficiently removed the cyanobacterial biomass, intracellular and dissolved MC to below the lifetime guideline value for exposure via drinking water (<1.0 µg MC-LR equiv. L−1). Thus, the potential health threats stem from the consumption of untreated water and recreational activities along the shores of the lake embayments. MC concentrations were predicted from Microcystis cell numbers regulated by environmental factors, such as solar radiation, wind speed in the N−S direction and turbidity. Thus, an early warning through microscopical counting of Microcystis cell numbers is proposed to better manage health risks from toxigenic cyanobacteria in Lake Victoria.

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RESUMEN

Natural lakes are thought to be globally important sources of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O) to the atmosphere although nearly no data have been previously reported from Africa. We collected CO2, CH4, and N2O data in 24 African lakes that accounted for 49% of total lacustrine surface area of the African continent and covered a wide range of morphology and productivity. The surface water concentrations of dissolved CO2 were much lower than values attributed in current literature to tropical lakes and lower than in boreal systems because of a higher productivity. In contrast, surface water-dissolved CH4 concentrations were generally higher than in boreal systems. The lowest CO2 and the highest CH4 concentrations were observed in the more shallow and productive lakes. Emissions of CO2 may likely have been substantially overestimated by a factor between 9 and 18 in African lakes and between 6 and 26 in pan-tropical lakes.

RESUMEN

Africa is experiencing high annual population growth in its major river basins. This growth has resulted in significant land use change and pollution pressures on the freshwater ecosystems. Among them, the Lake Victoria basin, with more than 42 million people, is a unique and vital resource that provides food and drinking water in East Africa. However, Lake Victoria (LV) has experienced a progressive eutrophication and substantial changes in the fish community leading to recurrent proliferation of water hyacinth and cyanobacteria. Based on an extensive literature review, we show that cyanobacterial biomasses and microcystin concentrations are higher in the bays and gulfs (B&Gs) than in the open lake (OL), with Microcystis and Dolichospermum as the dominant genera. These differences between the B&Gs and the OL are due to differences in their hydrological conditions and in the origins, type and quantities of nutrients. Using data from the literature, we describe the multiple ways in which the human population growth in the LV watershed is connected to the increasing occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms in the OL and B&Gs. We also described the consequences of cyanobacterial blooms on food resources and fishing and on direct water use and water supply of local populations, with their potential consequences on the human health. Finally, we discuss the actions that have been taken for the protection of LV. Although many projects have been implemented in the past years in order to improve the management of waste waters or to reduce deforestation and erosion, the huge challenge of the reduction of cyanobacterial blooms in LV by the control of eutrophication seems far from being achieved.

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RESUMEN

It is generally agreed that the hepatotoxic microcystins (MCs) are the most abundant toxins produced by cyanobacteria in freshwater. In various freshwater lakes in East Africa MC-producing Microcystis has been reported to dominate the phytoplankton, however the regulation of MC production is poorly understood. From May 2007 to April 2008 the Microcystis abundance, the absolute and relative abundance of the mcyB genotype indicative of MC production and the MC concentrations were recorded monthly in five freshwater lakes in Uganda: (1) in a crater lake (Lake Saka), (2) in three shallow lakes (Lake Mburo, George, Edward), (3) in Lake Victoria (Murchison Bay, Napoleon Gulf). During the whole study period Microcystis was abundant or dominated the phytoplankton. In all samples mcyB-containing cells of Microcystis were found and on average comprised 20+/-2% (SE) of the total population. The proportion of the mcyB genotype differed significantly between the sampling sites, and while the highest mcyB proportions were recorded in Lake Saka (37+/-3%), the lowest proportion was recorded in Lake George (1.4+/-0.2%). Consequently Microcystis from Lake George had the lowest MC cell quotas (0.03-1.24 fg MC cell(-1)) and resulted in the lowest MC concentrations (0-0.5 microg L(-1)) while Microcystis from Lake Saka consistently showed maximum MC cell quotas (14-144 fg cell(-1)) and the highest MC concentrations (0.5-10.2 microg L(-1)). Over the whole study period the average MC content per Microcystis cell depended linearly on the proportion of the mcyB genotype of Microcystis. It is concluded that Microcystis populations differ consistently and independently of the season in mcyB genotype proportion between lakes resulting in population-specific differences in the average MC content per cell.

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RESUMEN

Microcystins (MCs) are cyclic heptapeptides, which are the most abundant toxins produced by cyanobacteria in freshwater. The phytoplankton of many freshwater lakes in Eastern Africa is dominated by cyanobacteria. Less is known, however, on the occurrence of MC producers and the production of MCs. Twelve Ugandan freshwater habitats ranging from mesotrophic to hypertrophic conditions were sampled in May and June of 2004 and April of 2008 and were analyzed for their physicochemical parameters, phytoplankton composition, and MC concentrations. Among the group of the potential MC-producing cyanobacteria, Anabaena (0-10(7) cells ml(-1)) and Microcystis (10(3)-10(7) cells ml(-1)) occurred most frequently and dominated in eutrophic systems. A significant linear relationship (n = 31, r(2) = 0.38, P < 0.001) between the Microcystis cell numbers and MC concentration (1.3-93 fg of MC cell(-1)) was observed. Besides [MeAsp(3), Mdha(7)]-MC-RR, two new MCs, [Asp(3)]-MC-RY and [MeAsp(3)]-MC-RY, were isolated and their constitution was assigned by LC-MS(2). To identify the MC-producing organism in the water samples, (i) the conserved aminotransferase domain part of the mcyE gene that is indicative of MC production was amplified by general primers and cloned and sequenced, and (ii) genus-specific primers were used to amplify the mcyE gene of the genera Microcystis, Anabaena, and Planktothrix. Only mcyE genotypes that are indicative of Microcystis sp. were obtained via the environmental cloning approach (337 bp, 96.1-96.7% similarity to the Microcystis aeruginosa strain PCC7806). Accordingly, only the mcyE primers, which are specific for Microcystis, revealed PCR products. We concluded that Microcystis is the major MC-producer in Ugandan freshwater.

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