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Chromenopyridines constitute a structurally diverse class of compounds with a wide range of bioactivities and increasing presence in drugs. Here we analyze the scope of the synthetic methodology to access this nucleus with emphasis on multicomponent reactions and robust methodologies. Reactivity issues, medicinal applications and other properties are also reviewed.

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Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a very useful electrochemical tool used to study reaction systems that include chemical steps that are coupled to electron transfers. This type of system generally involves the chemical reaction of an electrochemically generated free radical. Published methods exist that are used to determine the kinetics of electrochemically initiated chemical reactions from the measurements of the peak current ratio (i(pa)/i(pc)) of a cyclic voltammogram. The published method requires working curves to relate a kinetic parameter to the peak current ratio. In the presented work, a digital simulation package was used to obtain improved working curves for specific working conditions. The curves were compared with the published results for the first- and second-order chemical reactions following the charge transfer step mechanisms. According to the presented results, the previously published working curve is reliable for a mechanism with a first-order chemical reaction; however, a change in the switching potential requires a recalculation of the curve. In the case of mechanisms with a second-order step (dimerisation and disproportionation), several different views exist on how the second-order chemical term should be expressed so that different values of the constant are obtained. Parameters such as electrode type, electrode area, electroactive species concentration, switching potential, scan rate and method for peak current ratio calculation modify the working curves and must always be specified. We propose a standardised method to obtain the most reliable kinetic constant values. The results of this work will permit researchers who handle simulation software to construct their own working curves. Additionally, those who do not have the simulation software could use the working curves described here. The revelations of the presented experiments may be useful to a broad chemistry audience because this study presents a simple and low-cost procedure for the study of free radicals that otherwise should be studied with more sophisticated and expensive techniques, such as ESR or pulse radiolysis.

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Finasteride in hydroalcoholic solutions (ethanol/Britton-Robinson buffer, 30/70) exhibits cathodic response in a wide range of pH (-0.5 to 12) using differential pulse (DPP) and test polarography (TP). The reduction peak of finasteride at acidic pH, is a catalytic proton peak resulting from a mechanism involving a first protonation of finasteride followed by the reduction of the protons combined with finasteride in order to regenerate finasteride and liberate hydrogen. Based on the catalytic hydrogen wave, a novel method for the determination of finasteride can be proposed. For analytical purposes we selected DPP technique in an ethanol/0.0625 mol L(-1) H(2)SO(4) (30/70) solution medium. In this condition the I(p) varied linearly with finasteride concentration between 5 x 10(-5) and 5 x 10(-4) mol L(-1). Within-day and inter-day reproducibility's were adequate with R.S.D. values lower than 2%. The selectivity of the method was checked with both accelerated degradation trials and typical excipients formulations. The developed method was applied to the assay and the uniformity content of finasteride tablets and compared with the standard HPLC method. The DPP-developed method was adequate for the finasteride determination in pharmaceutical forms as that exhibited an adequate accuracy, reproducibility and selectivity. Furthermore, treatment of the sample was not required as in HPLC; the method is not time-consuming and less expensive than the HPLC ones.

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A complete electrochemical study and a novel electroanalytical procedure for bromhexine quantitation are described. Bromhexine in methanol/0.1molL(-1) Britton-Robinson buffer solution (2.5/97.5) shows an anodic response on glassy carbon electrode between pH 2 and 7.5. By DPV and CV, both peak potential and current peak values were pH-dependent in all the pH range studied. A break at pH 5.5 in E(P) versus pH plot revealing a protonation-deprotonation (pK(a)) equilibrium of bromhexine was observed. Spectrophotometrically, an apparent pK(a) value of 4.3 was also determined. An electrodic mechanism involving the oxidation of bromhexine via two-electrons and two-protons was proposed. Controlled potential electrolysis followed by HPLC-UV and GC-MS permitted the identification of three oxidation products: N-methylcyclohexanamine, 2-amino-3,5-dibromobenzaldehyde and 2,4,8,10-tetrabromo dibenzo[b,f][1,5] diazocine. DPV at pH 2 was selected as optimal pH for analytical purposes. Repeatability, reproducibility and selectivity parameters were adequate to quantify bromhexine in pharmaceutical forms. The recovery was 94.50+/-2.03% and the detection and quantitation limits were 1.4x10(-5) and 1.6x10(-5)molL(-1), respectively. Furthermore, the DPV method was applied successfully to individual tablet assay in order to verify the uniformity content of bromhexine. No special treatment of sample were required due to excipients do not interfered with the analytical signal. Finally the method was not time-consuming and less expensive than the HPLC one.

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Three new nitrofuryl substituted 1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives were electrochemically tested in the scope of newly found compounds useful as chemotherapeutic alternative to the Chagas' disease. All the compounds were capable to produce nitro radical anions sufficiently stabilized in the time window of the cyclic voltammetric experiment. In order to quantify the stability of the nitro radical anion we have calculated the decay constant, k2. Furthermore, from the voltammetric results, some parameters of biological significance as E7(1) (indicative of in vivo nitro radical anion formation) and KO2 (thermodynamic indicator of oxygen redox cycling) have been calculated. From the comparison of E7(1), KO2 and k2 values between the studied nitrofuryl 1,4-DHP derivatives and well-known current drugs an auspicious activity for one of the studied compounds i.e. FDHP2, can be expected.

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In the present paper, a direct quenching of radical species by a number of synthesized nitrosoaryl 1,4-dihydropyridines and their parent nitroaryl 1,4-dihydropyridines was determined in aqueous media at pH 7.4. These two series of compounds were compared with the C-4 unsubstituted 1,4-dihydropyridines derivatives and the corresponding C-4 aryl substituted 1,4-dihydropyridines derivatives. Kinetic rate constants were assessed by UV-Vis spectroscopy. Nitrosoaryl derivatives were more reactive than the parent nitroaryl 1,4-dihydropyridines. Our results strongly support the assumption that the reactivity between the synthesized 1,4-dihydropyridines derivatives with alkylperoxyl radicals involves electron transfer reactions, which is documented by the presence of pyridine as final product of reaction and the complete oxidation of the nitroso group to give rise the nitro group in the case of the nitrosoaryl 1,4-dihydropyridines derivatives.

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PURPOSE: To study the reaction of a series of Hantzsch dihydropyridines with pharmacological significance such as, nifedipine, nitrendipine, nisoldipine, nimodipine, isradipine and felodipine, with electrogenerated superoxide in order to identify products and postulate a mechanism. METHODS: The final pyridine derivatives were separated and identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The intermediates, anion dihydropyridine and the HO2*/HO2- species, were observed from voltammetric studies and controlled potential electrolysis was used to electrogenerate O2*-. RESULTS: The current work reveals that electrogenerated superoxide can quantitatively oxidize Hantzsch dihydropyridines to produce the corresponding aromatized pyridine derivatives. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that the aromatization of Hantzsch dihydropyridines by superoxide is initiated by proton transfer from the N1-position on the 1,4-dihydropyridine ring to give the corresponding anion dihydropyridine, which readily undergoes further homogeneous oxidations to provide the final aromatized products. The oxidation of the anionic species of the dihydropyridine is more easily oxidized than the parent compound.

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A series of eight commercial C-4 substituted 1,4-dihydropyridines and other synthesized related compounds were tested for direct potential scavenger effect towards alkylperoxyl radicals and ABTS radical cation in aqueous Britton-Robinson buffer pH7.4. A direct quenching radical species was established. The tested 1,4-dihydropyridines were 8.3-fold more reactive towards alkylperoxyl radicals than ABTS cation radical, expressed by their corresponding kinetic rate constants. Furthermore, NPD a photolyte of nifedipine and the C-4 unsubstituted 1,4-DHP were the most reactive derivatives towards alkylperoxyl radicals. The pyridine derivative was confirmed by GC/MS technique as the final product of reaction. In consequence, the reduction of alkylperoxyl and ABTS radicals by 1,4-dihydropyridines involved an electron transfer process. Also, the participation of the hydrogen of the 1-position appears as relevant on the reactivity. Results of reactivity were compared with Trolox.

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Inclusion complexation between furnidipine (2,6-dimethyl-4-(2-nitrophenyl)-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid 3-tetrahydrofurfuryl 5-methyl diester), a calcium-channel antagonist, and beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CyD) was studied in aqueous solution by using both spectrophotometric and electrochemical measurements. The phase solubility profile was classified as A(L)-type, indicating the formation of 1:1 stoichiometric inclusion complex of furnidipine with beta-CyD. Based on the spectrophotometric absorbance's variations, a formation constant value, K(f), of 156 M(-1) was determined. Electrochemical measurements using chronocoulometric experiments were used for the determination of the diffusion coefficients. In absence of beta-CyD, a diffusion coefficient value of 4.32 x 10(-6) cm2 s(-1) was obtained for furnidipine. The addition of beta-CyD produced a decrease of 30% for the diffusion coefficient. Formation of inclusion complexes of furnidipine with beta-CyD was proved to increase more than three times the solubility of furnidipine.

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An HPLC reversed phase method using both UV (356 nm) and electrochemical (1000 mV) detection was developed in order to determine lercanidipine in commercial tablets. Repeatability and reproducibility were adequate. For quantification we have used the calibration plot method for lercanidipine concentration ranging between 1 x 10(-5) and 1 x 10(-4) M. Also, the proposed method is sufficiently selective to distinguish the parent drug and the degradation products after hydrolysis, photolysis or chemical oxidation. Furthermore, the typical excipients included in the drug formulation (talc, lactose, cornstarch, microcrystalline cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose and magnesium stearate) do not interfere with the selectivity of the method. Finally, the proposed chromatographic method was successfully applied to the quantitative determination of lercanidipine in commercial tablets.

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A series of C4-substituted 1,4-dihydropyridines (DHP) with either secondary or tertiary nitrogen in the dihydropyridine ring were synthesized. All of these compounds together with some commercial DHP derivatives were tested for potential scavenger effects toward alkyl, alkylperoxyl radicals, and ABTS radical cation in aqueous media at pH 7.4. Kinetic rate constants were assessed either by UV/vis spectroscopy or GC/MS techniques. Tested compounds reacted faster toward alkylperoxyl radicals and ABTS radical cation than alkyl ones. N-Ethyl-substituted DHPs showed the lowest reactivity. Kinetic results were compared with either trolox or nisoldipine. Using deuterium kinetic isotope effect studies, we have proved that the hydrogen of the 1-position of the DHP ring is involved in the proposed mechanism. This fact is mostly noticeable in the case of alkyl radicals. In all cases, the respective pyridine derivative was detected as the main product of the reaction.

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The development of a new HPLC-UV diode array procedure applied to follow the hydrolytic degradation of two well-known 4-nitrophenyl-1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives, nitrendipine and nisoldipine is reported. Hydrolysis of each drug were carried out in ethanol/Britton-Robinson buffer at different pHs, stored into amber vials at controlled temperatures of 40, 60 and 80 degrees C and periodically sampled and assayed by HPLC. Nitrendipine degradation in different parenteral solutions was also evaluated. The HPLC procedure exhibited an adequate selectivity, repeatability (<1%) and reproducibility (<2%). The recoveries were higher than 98% with CV of 1.13 and 1.54% for nitrendipine and nisoldipine, respectively. A significant degradation was observed at alkaline pH (>pH 8) with a first order kinetic for both drugs. At pH 12, 80 degrees C, k values of 3.56x10(-2) x h(-1) and 2.22x10(-2) for nitrendipine and nisoldipine, respectively were obtained. Also, activation energies of 16.8 and 14.7 kcal x mol(-1) for nitrendipine and nisoldipine, respectively, were calculated. Furthermore, from the results obtained from hydrolytic degradation in different solutions for parenteral use, we can affirm that solutions significantly increased the degradation of nitrendipine. In conclusion, the HPLC proposed procedure exhibited adequate analytical requirements to be applied to the hydrolytic degradation studies of nitrendipine and nisoldipine. Furthermore, all tested parenteral solutions significantly increased the hydrolytic degradation of nitrendipine, the composition of solution being a relevant factor.

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PURPOSE: To characterize the electrochemical behavior of the photodegradation product of nifedipine, i.e., 2,6-dimethyl-4-(2-nitrosophenyl)-3,5-pyridine-carboxylic acid dimethyl ester (NPD) in different electrolytic media. We also evaluated the interaction between free radicals generated from NPD and xeno/endobiotics. METHODS: Tast polarography, differential pulse polarography, and cyclic voltammetry were used for the characterization. Controlled potential electrolysis and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy were used to generate and to detect the nitroso radical anion. RESULTS: In protic media, the NPD derivative gave a reversible well-defined peak either on Hg or glassy carbon electrodes in a reaction involving two electrons and two protons to give the hydroxylamine derivative. In mixed aqueous-organic media (pH 9) and in aprotic media, nitroso radical anion was isolated and characterized, exhibiting second-order dimerization rate constant (k2) values of 11,300 +/- 210 [Ms](-1) and 8,820 +/- 78 [Ms](-1), respectively. Reactivity of the nitroso radical anion with relevant pharmacologic targets revealed a significant interaction with the tested endo/xenobiotics (cysteamine, GSH, N-acetylcysteine, and adenine). CONCLUSIONS: Both in mixed and aprotic media, NPD generated free-radical species, the nitroso radical anion. Taking into account their respective interaction rate constants, the following tentative rank order of reactivity can be established as follows: cysteamine > N-acetylcysteine > GSH > adenine.

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Chagas' disease constitutes a therapeutic challenge because presently available drugs have wide toxicity to the host and are generally ineffective in the chronic stages of the disease. A series of oxazolo(thiazolo)pyridene derivatives were studied on Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigote growth and oxygen consumption and their electrochemical (redox) potentials and lipophilicity. The derivatives produced different degrees of parasite growth and respiration inhibition on CL Brener, LQ, and Tulahuen strains of T. cruzi epimastigotes. Respiratory chain inhibition appears to be a determinant of the trypanosomicidal activity of these compounds, since a significant correlation between respiration and culture growth inhibition was found. A similar correlation was found, within the different structural subfamilies, between toxic effects and the ability of the compounds to be oxidized in aqueous media. The inhibition of respiration and of parasite growth in culture increases with the lipophilicity of the substituents on the oxazolopyridine nucleus. No difference in the action of these derivatives was found among the different parasite strains. It is concluded that these compounds may have a potential usefulness in the treatment of Chagas' disease.

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A gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) method for the qualitative and quantitative determination of melatonin plus pyridoxine commercial tablets is described. Melatonin and pyridoxine were simultaneously determined by GC-MS after extraction from ground tablets with methanol and derivatization with N-methyl-N-N-trimethlylsilyltrifluoroacetamide (MSTFA). The mass chromatograms were generated using 232 m/z ion for melatonin and 280 m/z ion for pyridoxine, respectively. Splitless injection offers good reproducibility with a standard deviation of 2%. The developed method was applied to analyze the melatonin and pyridoxine content from two different tablet formulations. Also, recovery, detection and quantification limits are reported.

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Lomefloxacin was reduced on a dropping mercury electrode, producing one or more peaks, depending on the pH of the aqueous medium. Coulometric measurements gave an experimental value of 1 electron for the main peak. Electrolysis was followed by UV spectrophotometry and liquid chromatography (LC), showing that a new band at 413 nm appeared for the electrolysis product in an acidic medium. Furthermore, by using UV spectrophotometry, an apparent pKa value of 6.75 +/- 0.05 was obtained for lomefloxacin corresponding to the carboxyl moiety in the 3-position. For analytical studies, the differential pulse polarographic mode in 0.1 N HCl was selected. The repeatability and reproducibility of the method were adequate (coefficient of variation [CV], 0.51%). The calibration curve method was used for the lomefloxacin concentration range of 7.0 x 10(-6) to 7.0 x 10(-5)M. The detection and quantitation limits were 1.0 x 10(-6) and 6.9 x 10(-6)M, respectively. For purposes of comparison, both UV spectrophotometric and LC (with UV and fluorimetric detection) methods were developed. The polarographic method showed good selectivity with respect to both excipients and degradation products. The recovery study showed a CV of <2% and an average recovery of 99.5% and it was not necessary to treat the sample before analysis. The method was applied to the determination of the uniformity content of lomefloxacin commercial tablets. The polarographic method was also successfully applied to the quantitation of lomefloxacin in urine, and the renal excretion profile was also determined.

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This paper reports the feasibility of free radicals formation from flutamide by using cyclic voltammetry. The electrochemical characteristics and the reactivity of the one-electron reduction product from flutamide in mixed media with thiol compounds and the nuclei acid bases are characterized. Results from this paper show the thermodynamic feasibility of free radical formation expressed for both the cathodic peak potential and the second-order rate constant values. The reactivity of the radical towards thiol compounds (glutathione, cysteamine, N-acetylcysteine) and the nuclei acid base, adenine, thymine and uracil were quantitatively assessed through the calculation of the respective interaction rate constants. Based on these results, the following tentative order of reactivity towards the xeno/endobiotics is as follows: cysteamine > uracil > glutathione > adenine > N-acetylcysteine > thymine. The stability of the nitro radical anion electrochemically generated from flutamide showed a linear dependence with pH.

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This paper deals with the reactivity of the nitro radical anion electrochemically generated from nitrofurantoin with glutathione. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and controlled potential electrolysis were used to generate the nitro radical anion in situ and in bulk solution, respectively and cyclic voltammetry, UV--Visible and EPR spectroscopy were used to characterize the electrochemically formed radical and to study its interaction with GSH. By cyclic voltammetry on a hanging mercury drop electrode, the formation of the nitro radical anion was possible in mixed media (0.015M aqueous citrate/DMF, 40/60, pH 9) and in aprotic media. A second order decay of the radicals was determined, with a k2 value of 201 and 111 M(-1) s(-1), respectively. Controlled potential electrolysis generated the radical and its detection by cyclic voltammetry, UV--Visible and EPR spectroscopy was possible. When glutathione (GSH) was added to the solution, an unambiguous decay in the signals corresponding to a nitro radical anion were observed and using a spin trapping technique, a thiyl radical was detected. Electrochemical and spectroscopic data indicated that it is possible to generate the nitro radical anion from nitrofurantoin in solution and that GSH scavenged this reactive species, in contrast with other authors, which previously reported no interaction between them.

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A series of 3-chloro-phenyl-1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives produced different degrees of inhibition of parasite growth and respiration on clone Brener, LQ and Tulahuen strains of Trypanosome cruzi epimastigotes. Respiratory chain inhibition appears to be a posible determinant of the trypanosomicidal activity of this compounds. No difference in the action of these derivatives was found among the different parasite strains. For comparative purposes, the inhibitory effects of felodipine and nicardipine are also reported. A good correlation between toxic effects and the easiness of oxidation of the dihydripyridine ring was found. The presence of a fused ring on the dihydropyridine moiety significantly diminished the inhibitory effects.

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