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BACKGROUND: Resting brain connectivity is a crucial component of human behavior demonstrated by disruptions in psychosexual and emotional disorders. Kisspeptin, a recently identified critical reproductive hormone, can alter activity in certain brain structures but its effects on resting brain connectivity and networks in humans remain elusive. METHODS: We determined the effects of kisspeptin on resting brain connectivity (using functional neuroimaging) and behavior (using psychometric analyses) in healthy men, in a randomized double-blinded 2-way placebo-controlled study. RESULTS: Kisspeptin's modulation of the default mode network (DMN) correlated with increased limbic activity in response to sexual stimuli (globus pallidus r = 0.500, P = 0.005; cingulate r = 0.475, P = 0.009). Furthermore, kisspeptin's DMN modulation was greater in men with less reward drive (r = -0.489, P = 0.008) and predicted reduced sexual aversion (r = -0.499, P = 0.006), providing key functional significance. Kisspeptin also enhanced key mood connections including between the amygdala-cingulate, hippocampus-cingulate, and hippocampus-globus pallidus (all P < 0.05). Consistent with this, kisspeptin's enhancement of hippocampus-globus pallidus connectivity predicted increased responses to negative stimuli in limbic structures (including the thalamus and cingulate [all P < 0.01]). CONCLUSION: Taken together, our data demonstrate a previously unknown role for kisspeptin in the modulation of functional brain connectivity and networks, integrating these with reproductive hormones and behaviors. Our findings that kisspeptin modulates resting brain connectivity to enhance sexual and emotional processing and decrease sexual aversion, provide foundation for kisspeptin-based therapies for associated disorders of body and mind. FUNDING: NIHR, MRC, and Wellcome Trust.

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BACKGROUND: Sex, emotion, and reproduction are fundamental and tightly entwined aspects of human behavior. At a population level in humans, both the desire for sexual stimulation and the desire to bond with a partner are important precursors to reproduction. However, the relationships between these processes are incompletely understood. The limbic brain system has key roles in sexual and emotional behaviors, and is a likely candidate system for the integration of behavior with the hormonal reproductive axis. We investigated the effects of kisspeptin, a recently identified key reproductive hormone, on limbic brain activity and behavior. METHODS: Using a combination of functional neuroimaging and hormonal and psychometric analyses, we compared the effects of kisspeptin versus vehicle administration in 29 healthy heterosexual young men. RESULTS: We demonstrated that kisspeptin administration enhanced limbic brain activity specifically in response to sexual and couple-bonding stimuli. Furthermore, kisspeptin's enhancement of limbic brain structures correlated with psychometric measures of reward, drive, mood, and sexual aversion, providing functional significance. In addition, kisspeptin administration attenuated negative mood. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our data provide evidence of an undescribed role for kisspeptin in integrating sexual and emotional brain processing with reproduction in humans. These results have important implications for our understanding of reproductive biology and are highly relevant to the current pharmacological development of kisspeptin as a potential therapeutic agent for patients with common disorders of reproductive function. FUNDING: National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Wellcome Trust (Ref 080268), and the Medical Research Council (MRC).

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CONTEXT: In vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment is an effective therapy for infertility, but can result in the potentially life-threatening complication, ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate whether kisspeptin-54 can be used to effectively and safely trigger oocyte maturation in women undergoing IVF treatment at high risk of developing OHSS. SETTING AND DESIGN: This was a phase 2, multi-dose, open-label, randomized clinical trial of 60 women at high risk of developing OHSS carried out during 2013-2014 at Hammersmith Hospital IVF unit, London, United Kingdom. INTERVENTION: Following a standard recombinant FSH/GnRH antagonist protocol, patients were randomly assigned to receive a single injection of kisspeptin-54 to trigger oocyte maturation using an adaptive design for dose allocation (3.2 nmol/kg, n = 5; 6.4 nmol/kg, n = 20; 9.6 nmol/kg, n = 15; 12.8 nmol/kg, n = 20). Oocytes were retrieved 36 h after kisspeptin-54 administration, assessed for maturation, and fertilized by intracytoplasmic sperm injection with subsequent transfer of one or two embryos. Women were routinely screened for the development of OHSS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Oocyte maturation was measured by oocyte yield (percentage of mature oocytes retrieved from follicles ≥ 14 mm on ultrasound). Secondary outcomes include rates of OHSS and pregnancy. RESULTS: Oocyte maturation occurred in 95% of women. Highest oocyte yield (121%) was observed following 12.8 nmol/kg kisspeptin-54, which was +69% (confidence interval, -16-153%) greater than following 3.2 nmol/kg. At all doses of kisspeptin-54, biochemical pregnancy, clinical pregnancy, and live birth rates per transfer (n = 51) were 63, 53, and 45%, respectively. Highest pregnancy rates were observed following 9.6 nmol/kg kisspeptin-54 (85, 77, and 62%, respectively). No woman developed moderate, severe, or critical OHSS. CONCLUSION: Kisspeptin-54 is a promising approach to effectively and safely trigger oocyte maturation in women undergoing IVF treatment at high risk of developing OHSS.

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BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular complications represent the biggest cause of mortality in acromegaly. It is therefore important to optimally stratify acromegalic patients according to disease activity and complication risk. GH is secreted in a pulsatile manner from the pituitary gland, but GH pulsatility is not routinely assessed clinically. The coefficient of variation of serum GH (GHCV) during oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) quantifies the variation of GH secretion in patients with acromegaly, but has not been reported previously. AIM: To investigate whether GHCV during OGTT is associated with clinical parameters predicted to relate with hypothalamo-pituitary dysfunction during acromegaly, such as radiotherapy treatment, pituitary deficiency and cardiac disease. METHODS: GHCV was calculated during 584 OGTTs and compared with nadir serum GH and IGF-1 in 111 acromegalic patients treated at a single centre. RESULTS: Acromegalic patients treated with radiotherapy had a 37% lower level of GHCV when compared to the nonradiotherapy group (mean GHCV: 0·298 ± 0·015, no radiotherapy; 0·189 ± 0·007, radiotherapy; P < 0·001). Neither serum IGF-1 nor nadir GH was significantly altered in the radiotherapy group. Mean GHCV was 50% lower in the acromegalic patients with cardiac failure when compared to acromegalic patients with normal echocardiogram (0·161 ± 0·034 vs 0·297 ± 0·055; P < 0·05). Neither serum IGF-1 nor nadir GH was significantly altered during cardiac failure. CONCLUSION: Our preliminary data suggest that GHCV during OGTT may be reduced during acromegaly in patients with previous radiotherapy, pituitary deficiencies and cardiac disease. Larger studies are required to determine whether GHCV could provide help to assess the morbidity status of patients with treated acromegaly.

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BACKGROUND: Kisspeptin is an arginine-phenylalanine amide peptide hormone critical for reproductive function. Kisspeptin is also abundantly expressed in the placenta, where it has an important physiological role in regulating placental invasion. Accordingly, plasma kisspeptin concentrations rise dramatically during normal pregnancy. However, lower plasma concentrations of kisspeptin are associated with obstetric complications such as pre-eclampsia. It is not currently known whether kisspeptin-immunoreactivity (IR) can be detected in bodily fluids not requiring invasive collection such as saliva or urine. AIM: To determine the clinical utility of urinary and salivary kisspeptin measurement in healthy pregnant women. METHODS: Forty-nine healthy third trimester pregnant women (gestational age 34 ± 0.6 w) from a single maternity unit and 50 healthy non-pregnant women were recruited. Urine, saliva and blood were simultaneously collected from all volunteers. Kisspeptin concentrations were determined by in-house manual radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: Mean concentrations of plasma kisspeptin-IR were over 200-fold greater in third trimester pregnant women compared with non-pregnant women (13,783 ± 864 pmol/L, pregnant; 65 ± 13 pmol/L, non-pregnant; p < 0.0001). The urine kisspeptin:creatinine ratio was greater in pregnant women when compared with non-pregnant women (urine kisspeptin:creatinine: 37 ± 6 pmol/µmol, pregnant; 7 ± 1 pmol/µmol, non-pregnant; p < 0.0001). Mean concentrations of salivary kisspeptin-IR were not statistically different between pregnant and non-pregnant women (123 ± 34 pmol/L, pregnant; 83 ± 33 pmol/L, non-pregnant; p = 0.2). CONCLUSION: We demonstrate for the first time that kisspeptin-IR is elevated in urine during pregnancy. Urinary measurement of kisspeptin-IR may, therefore, offer a non-invasive and simple method of screening for pregnancy and obstetric complications.

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BACKGROUND: Patients with mutations that inactivate kisspeptin signaling are infertile. Kisspeptin-54, the major circulating isoform of kisspeptin in humans, potently stimulates reproductive hormone secretion in humans. Animal studies suggest that kisspeptin is involved in generation of the luteinizing hormone surge, which is required for ovulation; therefore, we hypothesized that kisspeptin-54 could be used to trigger egg maturation in women undergoing in vitro fertilization therapy. METHODS: Following superovulation with recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone and administration of gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist to prevent premature ovulation, 53 women were administered a single subcutaneous injection of kisspeptin-54 (1.6 nmol/kg, n = 2; 3.2 nmol/kg, n = 3; 6.4 nmol/kg, n = 24; 12.8 nmol/kg, n = 24) to induce a luteinizing hormone surge and egg maturation. Eggs were retrieved transvaginally 36 hours after kisspeptin injection, assessed for maturation (primary outcome), and fertilized by intracytoplasmic sperm injection with subsequent transfer of one or two embryos. RESULTS: Egg maturation was observed in response to each tested dose of kisspeptin-54, and the mean number of mature eggs per patient generally increased in a dose-dependent manner. Fertilization of eggs and transfer of embryos to the uterus occurred in 92% (49/53) of kisspeptin-54-treated patients. Biochemical and clinical pregnancy rates were 40% (21/53) and 23% (12/53), respectively. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that a single injection of kisspeptin-54 can induce egg maturation in women with subfertility undergoing in vitro fertilization therapy. Subsequent fertilization of eggs matured following kisspeptin-54 administration and transfer of resulting embryos can lead to successful human pregnancy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01667406.

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BACKGROUND: Hypothalamic amenorrhea (HA) is the one of the most common causes of period loss in women of reproductive age and is associated with deficient LH pulsatility. High-dose kisspeptin-54 acutely stimulates LH secretion in women with HA, but chronic administration causes desensitization. GnRH has paradoxical effects on reproductive activity; we therefore hypothesized that a dose-dependent therapeutic window exists within which kisspeptin treatment restores the GnRH/LH pulsatility in women with HA. AIM: The aim of the study was to determine whether constant iv infusion of kisspeptin-54 temporarily increases pulsatile LH secretion in women with HA. METHODS: Five patients with HA each underwent six assessments of LH pulsatility. Single-blinded continuous iv infusion of vehicle or kisspeptin-54 (0.01, 0.03, 0.10, 0.30, or 1.00 nmol/kg/h) was administered. The LH pulses were detected using blinded deconvolution. RESULTS: Kisspeptin increased LH pulsatility in all patients with HA, with peak responses observed at different doses in each patient. The mean peak number of pulses during infusion of kisspeptin-54 was 3-fold higher when compared with vehicle (number of LH pulses per 8 h: 1.6 ± 0.4, vehicle; 5.0 ± 0.5, kisspeptin-54, P < .01 vs vehicle). The mean peak LH pulse secretory mass during kisspeptin-54 was 6-fold higher when compared with vehicle (LH pulse secretory mass in international units per liter: 3.92 ± 2.31, vehicle; 23.44 ± 12.59, kisspeptin-54; P < .05 vs vehicle). CONCLUSIONS: Kisspeptin-54 infusion temporarily increases LH pulsatility in women with HA. Furthermore, we have determined the dose range within which kisspeptin-54 treatment increases basal and pulsatile LH secretion in women with HA. This work provides a basis for studying the potential of kisspeptin-based therapies to treat women with HA.

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BACKGROUND: Kisspeptin is a hypothalamic neuropeptide playing a physiological role in human reproduction. Genetic over-activation of kisspeptin causes precocious puberty in children. Concentrations of circulating kisspeptin are low in adults. The concentrations of plasma kisspeptin in boys and girls have not been studied previously. METHODS: Blood was obtained from 51 children and 63 adults. Plasma samples were analysed using radioimmunoassay. Children were aged 2-18 years, and attending hospital for a medically requested blood test unrelated to reproductive development. Data on pubertal status were not collected due to ethical reasons. RESULTS: Mean plasma kisspeptin was significantly higher in children when compared with adults (mean plasma kisspeptin in pmol/L: 12.3 ± 0.9, adults; 40.9 ± 3.3, children, P < 0.001 vs. adults). Overall mean concentrations of plasma kisspeptin were not significantly different between sexes (mean plasma kisspeptin in pmol/L: 39.5 ± 3.2, boys; 44.3 ± 6.3, girls, P = 0.48). In both sexes, concentrations of plasma kisspeptin increased with age to peak concentrations between 9 and 12 years of age, before decreasing beyond 12 years of age to adulthood. Plasma kisspeptin concentrations were highly significantly elevated in both girls and boys aged 9-12 when compared with adults (mean plasma kisspeptin in pmol/L: 59.5 ± 18.3, girls, P < 0.01 vs. adult women; 43.8 ± 6.2, boys, P < 0.001 vs. adult men). CONCLUSIONS: We report that circulating kisspeptin is elevated in both boys and girls when compared with adults. Furthermore both boys and girls may have distinct, age-dependent concentrations of circulating kisspeptin. Further studies may determine if plasma kisspeptin could be used as a clinically useful biochemical marker of reproductive development in children.

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BACKGROUND: Neurokinin B (NKB) is a member of the tachykinin family of peptides. Inactivating mutations in the tachykinin 3 or tachykinin 3 receptor gene are associated with pubertal failure and congenital hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism in humans. This suggests that NKB may have a critical role in human reproduction. The effects of NKB administration have not been investigated previously in humans. AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the effects of iv administration of NKB on gonadotrophin secretion in healthy male and female volunteers. METHODS: A total of 23 healthy men and 11 healthy women participated in the study. After an initial dose-finding study (study 1), men received a 4-hour infusion of vehicle (gelofusin) followed by a 4-hour infusion of NKB (2.56 or 5.12 nmol/kg/h) (study 2), and an 8-hour infusion of vehicle or NKB during different visits (study 3). Healthy women underwent a dose-finding study consisting of a 3-hour NKB administration during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, and the maximum dose of NKB was also tested during the preovulatory and midluteal phases of menstrual cycle (study 4). RESULTS: Mean LH, FSH, and T secretion were not significantly altered during a 90-minute infusion of NKB (0.4-5.12 nmol/kg/h), or a 4-hour infusion of NKB (5.12 nmol/kg/h). No alterations in gonadotrophin secretion or LH pulsatility were observed during an 8-hour infusion of NKB when compared with vehicle. Doses of 0.64-5.12 nmol/kg/h NKB did not significantly alter LH, FSH, or estradiol secretion in healthy women during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Finally, 5.12 nmol/kg/h did not significantly alter reproductive hormone secretion during the preovulatory or midluteal phases of the menstrual cycle. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first clinical study of NKB administration. None of the doses of NKB tested were associated with significant alterations in reproductive hormone secretion in healthy male or female volunteers. These novel data add to our understanding of the physiological actions of NKB in human reproduction.

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CONTEXT: Lithium increases iodine retention in the thyroid gland and inhibits thyroid hormone release. Although lithium has been reported to improve the efficacy of radioactive iodine (RAI) treatment in Graves' disease, its role as an adjunct to RAI treatment of hyperthyroidism, particularly in toxic nodular disease, remains contentious. OBJECTIVE: To assess whether adjuvant lithium increases the efficacy of a fixed dose RAI regimen in Graves' and toxic nodular hyperthyroid patients. DESIGN AND SETTING: Retrospective cohort study in a tertiary referral centre. Two hundred and four hyperthyroid patients (163 Graves' disease, 26 toxic multinodular goitre and 15 solitary toxic thyroid adenoma). INTERVENTION: One hundred and three patients received RAI alone (median dose 558 MBq). One hundred and one patients received RAI (median dose 571 MBq) with adjuvant lithium (800 mg/day for 10 days). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Proportion of patients cured at any time over a 1-year period following RAI treatment. Cure was defined as sustained (two or more sequential time points) biochemical euthyroidism or hypothyroidism during the follow-up period. RESULTS: The likelihood of cure at any time was 60% greater in all hyperthyroid patients (Graves' plus toxic nodular disease) receiving adjuvant lithium (n = 204, P = 0·003). In patients with Graves' disease receiving RAI + lithium, there was a similar occurrence in cure (n = 163, P = 0·006). Cure was twice as likely in patients with toxic nodular (non-Graves') disease receiving RAI + lithium compared with RAI alone (n = 41, P = 0·01). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the use of adjuvant lithium to improve the efficacy of RAI in the treatment of Grave's disease and suggests a novel role in the management of toxic nodular (non-Graves') disease.

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BACKGROUND: Kisspeptin peptides are critical in human reproductive physiology and are potential therapies for infertility. Kisspeptin-10 stimulates gonadotropin release in both male and female rodents. However, few studies have investigated the effects of kisspeptin-10 on gonadotropin release in humans, and none have investigated the effect in women. If kisspeptin is to be useful for treating reproductive disease, its effects in both men and women must be established. AIM: To compare the effects of kisspeptin-10 administration on reproductive hormone release in healthy men and women. METHODS: Intravenous bolus kisspeptin-10 was administered to men and women (n = 4-5 per group). Subcutaneous bolus and i.v. infusion of kisspeptin-10 was also administered to female women (n = 4-5 per group). Circulating reproductive hormones were measured. RESULTS: In healthy men, serum LH and FSH were elevated after i.v. bolus kisspeptin-10, at doses as low as 0.3 and 1.0 nmol/kg, respectively. In healthy women during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, no alterations in serum gonadotropins were observed after i.v. bolus, s.c. bolus, or i.v. infusion of kisspeptin-10 at maximal doses of 10 nmol/kg, 32 nmol/kg, and 720 pmol/kg/min, respectively. In women during the preovulatory phase, serum LH and FSH were elevated after i.v. bolus kisspeptin-10 (10 nmol/kg). CONCLUSION: Kisspeptin-10 stimulates gonadotropin release in men as well as women during the preovulatory phase of menstrual cycle but fails to stimulate gonadotropin release in women during the follicular phase. The sexual dimorphism of the responsiveness of healthy men and women to kisspeptin-10 administration has important clinical implications for the potential of kisspeptin-10 to treat disorders of reproduction.

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AIMS: To investigate (i) if kisspeptin administration alters heart rate (HR) or blood pressure (BP) in healthy male and female volunteers, (ii) whether circulating plasma kisspeptin concentrations in healthy pregnant women and women with hypertensive diseases of pregnancy correlate with BP and (iii) whether women with hypertensive diseases of pregnancy have altered plasma kisspeptin concentrations. METHODS: We have previously reported the effects of administration of kisspeptin-54 on gonadotrophin secretion in healthy male and female volunteers. In these studies, cardiovascular parameters were not a primary endpoint. However, data were also collected on BP and HR for 4h post administration of kisspeptin-54. Blood samples were taken from 105 women in the third trimester of pregnancy (27 women with hypertensive diseases of pregnancy and 78 controls). Samples were assayed for plasma kisspeptin immunoreactivity (IR). RESULTS: Administration of kisspeptin was not associated with significant changes in HR or BP in healthy men or women. There was no significant correlation between plasma kisspeptin concentration and BP in healthy pregnant women or in those with hypertensive diseases of pregnancy. No significant differences in plasma kisspeptin-IR concentrations were observed between women with hypertensive diseases of pregnancy and normotensive pregnant controls, plasma kisspeptin concentrations ±SE: controls 2878 ± 157pmol l(-1) ; pregnancy-induced hypertension 2696 ± 299pmoll(-1) (95% CI vs. controls -514, 878pmoll(-1) ); pre-eclampsia 3519 ± 357 (95% CI vs. controls -1644, 362pmoll(-1) ). CONCLUSIONS: Elevation of plasma kisspeptin-IR is not associated with an alteration in BP in humans.

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Kisspeptin, the product of the KiSS-1 gene, inhibits metastasis and stimulates the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. Kisspeptin is therefore a putative target in the treatment of hormone-sensitive malignancies. Prostatic carcinoma remains a significant cause of mortality despite improvements in therapy. The role of kisspeptin in prostatic carcinoma remains undefined. We therefore aimed to investigate release of kisspeptin by prostatic cancer cell lines; investigate expression of KiSS-1 in human prostate tissue; investigate whether patients with prostate carcinoma have elevated plasma kisspeptin. 1) Culture medium from prostatic carcinoma cell lines LNCaP, DU145 and PC3 was assayed for kisspeptin immunoreactivity (-IR). Kisspeptin-IR release was detectable from all three cell lines. The effect of hydroxyflutamide, gefitinib and resveratrol on kisspeptin-IR release from these cell lines was also investigated. No effect of the drugs tested on release of kisspeptin-IR was observed. 2) Expression of KiSS-1 in human prostate tissue (n=4) was investigated using in situ hybridisation. Expression of KiSS-1 was detected in human prostate tissue. 3) Plasma kisspeptin-IR was compared in 92 patients with prostatic carcinoma and 73 male controls. Kisspeptin-IR was not detected in the plasma of either patients with prostate cancer or control patients. We have therefore shown for the first time the release of kisspeptin-IR by prostatic carcinoma cell lines. We have also shown that KiSS-1 is expressed in human prostate tissue, and that circulating levels of kisspeptin-IR are not elevated in patients with prostatic carcinoma. Further work is required to determine the role of kisspeptin in the prostate.

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BACKGROUND: Kisspeptin is a critical regulator of normal reproductive function. A single injection of kisspeptin in healthy human volunteers potently stimulates gonadotropin release. However, the effects of kisspeptin on gonadotropin release in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea (HA) and the effects of repeated administration of kisspeptin to humans are unknown. AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the effects of acute and chronic kisspeptin administration on gonadotropin release in women with HA. METHODS: We performed a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, parallel design study. Women with HA received twice-daily sc injections of kisspeptin (6.4 nmol/kg) or 0.9% saline (n = 5 per group) for 2 wk. Changes in serum gonadotropin and estradiol levels, LH pulsatility, and ultrasound measurements of reproductive activity were assessed. RESULTS: On the first injection day, potent increases in serum LH and FSH were observed after sc kisspeptin injection in women with HA (mean maximal increment from baseline within 4 h after injection: LH, 24.0 +/- 3.5 IU/liter; FSH, 9.1 +/- 2.5 IU/liter). These responses were significantly reduced on the 14th injection day (mean maximal increment from baseline within 4 h postinjection: LH, 2.5 +/- 2.2 IU/liter, P < 0.05; FSH, 0.5 +/- 0.5 IU/liter, P < 0.05). Subjects remained responsive to GnRH after kisspeptin treatment. No significant changes in LH pulsatility or ultrasound measurements of reproductive activity were observed. CONCLUSION: Acute administration of kisspeptin to women with infertility due to HA potently stimulates gonadotropin release, but chronic administration of kisspeptin results in desensitization to its effects on gonadotropin release. These data have important implications for the development of kisspeptin as a novel therapy for reproductive disorders in humans.

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Kisspeptin is a 54-amino acid peptide, encoded by the anti-metastasis gene KiSS-1, that activates G protein-coupled receptor 54 (GPR54). The kisspeptin-GPR54 system is critical to normal reproductive development. KiSS-1 gene expression is increased in the human placenta in normal and molar pregnancies. Circulating kisspeptin is dramatically increased in normal pregnancy, but levels in GTN have not previously been reported. The present study was designed to determine whether plasma kisspeptin levels are altered in patients with malignant GTN. Thirty-nine blood samples were taken from 11 patients with malignant GTN at presentation during and after chemotherapy. Blood was also sampled from nonpregnant and pregnant volunteers. Plasma kisspeptin IR and hCG concentrations were measured. Plasma kisspeptin IR concentration in nonpregnant (n = 16) females was <2 pmol/l. Plasma kisspeptin IR in females was 803 +/- 125 pmol/l in the first trimester of pregnancy (n = 13), 2,483 +/- 302 pmol/l in the third trimester of pregnancy (n = 7), and <2 pmol/l on day 15 postpartum (n = 7). Plasma kisspeptin IR and hCG concentrations in patients with malignant GTN were elevated at presentation and fell during and after treatment with chemotherapy in each patient (mean plasma kisspeptin IR: prechemotherapy 1,363 +/- 1,076 pmol/l vs. post-chemotherapy <2 pmol/l, P < 0.0001; mean plasma hCG: prechemotherapy 227,191 +/- 152,354 U/l vs. postchemotherapy 2 U/l, P < 0.0001). Plasma kisspeptin IR strongly positively correlated with plasma hCG levels (r(2) = 0.99, P < 0.0001). Our results suggest that measurement of plasma kisspeptin IR may be a novel tumor marker in patients with malignant GTN.

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