RESUMEN
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses continue to threaten smallholder poultry producers in several South-east Asian countries, including Vietnam. In particular, the free-grazing duck system has been repeatedly highlighted as a major risk factor for HPAI outbreaks. Free-grazing ducks, which scavenge on rice paddies after the harvest, account for a large proportion of the duck population in Vietnam and the wider South-east Asian region. However, the structure and dynamics of the free-grazing duck production from farm to consumption has not been described for Vietnam. In this study, we used a value chain approach to provide a complete picture of the actors involved in the production and marketing of free-grazing duck eggs and spent layer ducks, as well as to investigate the governance structure of this food system. Group interviews and key informant interviews were conducted in two provinces located in the Mekong River Delta (MRD) and the Red River Delta (RRD). The results presented here highlight similarities and differences in farming and trade practices between the two provinces. The trade of spent layer ducks involved large volumes of live ducks being sent to China and Cambodia for consumption, generating a substantial risk of transboundary spread of pathogens, including HPAI viruses. We describe the major role of "duck yards", which act as hubs in the northbound trade of spent layer ducks. These yards should be considered as essential links in the value chain of spent layer ducks when considering HPAI surveillance and control. The veterinary authorities are only marginally involved in the value chain activities, and their influence could be strengthened by increasing surveillance activities for instance in duck yards. Last, we discuss the dynamics of the duck value chain and further implications for future HPAI management policies.
Asunto(s)
Crianza de Animales Domésticos/métodos , Comercio/estadística & datos numéricos , Transmisión de Enfermedad Infecciosa/estadística & datos numéricos , Patos/virología , Subtipo H5N1 del Virus de la Influenza A/patogenicidad , Gripe Aviar/transmisión , Enfermedades de las Aves de Corral/transmisión , Animales , Cambodia , China , Brotes de Enfermedades/veterinaria , Gripe Aviar/epidemiología , Enfermedades de las Aves de Corral/epidemiología , Factores de Riesgo , Vietnam/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
This study examines the use and quality of antimalarial drugs in the growing private sector of Viet Nam. The practices of drug vendors (called alternative treatment providers (ATPs)) as well as their stocks and the quality of drugs sold by them, and the local production and distribution of antimalarials were investigated. Antimalarials were sold by the vast majority of ATPs, almost all the common antimalarials being available for sale. The practices and indications for sale, however, varied. Underdosing for malaria was frequent in all three provinces studied, and lack of knowledge of the appropriate regimen for cure was common among the drug-sellers. Samples of antimalarials were collected from ATP outlets in the three provinces, and the drugs were assessed for their contents and expiry date by the Institute of Drug Quality Control in Hanoi. Of the 218 samples of drugs examined by the Institute, over 96% met the quality requirements. However, a 10% sample of these drugs were independently assessed by WHO and revealed a different picture: 70% of them failed to meet the standard specifications required. There is therefore an urgent need to improve the capability and monitoring procedures of bodies involved in assessing and regulating drugs in Viet Nam.