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BACKGROUND: The space requirements for accommodating cattle during confinement are based on assessment of both the physical space occupied by the animals and that needed for essential behaviours. The aim of this study was to estimate the area (m2 ) occupied by cattle of different liveweights in the static standing (ST), recumbency (SR) and sleeping (SL) postures. METHODS: The study was conducted in Chile. The area (m2 ) occupied by 26 female beef cross cattle with liveweights between 45 and 642 kg was estimated in the ST, SR and SL postures through planimetry using overhead photographs. The allometric coefficient k value was obtained for each posture using linear regression equations from the measured weight (kg0.66 ) and area occupied. RESULTS: Less but more variable space was occupied by each individual in the ST posture compared to SR or SL posture, with clear correlations between weight and occupied area. The k values obtained were 0.014 (ST), 0.023 (SR) and 0.021 (SL), which are all less than international recommendations for the same postures. LIMITATIONS: The methodology needs refinement to reduce the distance to the object optical effect in the different postures. Further work is also needed to determine additional space requirements for behavioural needs and movements associated with each posture and change of posture, depending on the type of confinement. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a scientific basis on which to objectively establish absolute minimum static space requirements for cattle of different breeds, types, weights and anatomical conformations and calculate k values.

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Transporting livestock at high stocking density by ship presents significant risks to their welfare, especially if it is over long distances. Previous research has investigated small variations in density for long periods or a moderate variation for short periods. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of a doubling of space allowance during two types of simulated ship movement, regular and irregular floor motion, on the welfare of sheep for a short one-hour period. Six 25 kg sheep were restrained in pairs in a crate on a programmable platform that generated roll and pitch motion typical of that experienced on board ship. Sheep were subjected to regular or irregular movement or a control treatment at high and low stocking densities (0.26 and 0.52 m2/sheep) in a multilevel changeover design. Irregular movement was programmed as a sequence of 30 different amplitude and duration values for pitch and roll movements, which were randomly selected by computer software controlling the movement. Regular movement was the mean of these values, which represented approximately 33% of the recommended maximum tolerance for livestock carriers. Behaviour was recorded by six cameras positioned around the crate. The low space allowance increased sheep pushing each other (Low: 4.51 events/h, High: 1.37 events/h, p < 0.001), affiliative behaviour, with their heads one on top of the other (Low 8.64, High 3.75 s/h, p = 0.02) and standing supported by the crate (Low 96, High 3.2 s/h, p < 0.001). Sheep stepped more frequently when more space was provided, particularly in the forward (Low 6.4, High 8.4 steps/h, p = 0.02) and left (Low 4.0, High 4.7 steps/h, p = 0.03) directions. The low space allowance group also had i heart rates, providing evidence of physiological stress. Irregular movement reduced rumination (Irregular 288, Control 592, Regular 403 s/h, p = 0.02), which was evidence of reduced welfare, but balance corrections by stepping were more common if the motion was regular. Thus, there was evidence that the low space allowance increased interactions between sheep and was stressful, and that irregular floor motion in simulated ship transport limited balance control and reduced welfare.

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Unpredictable floor motions during transport disturbs animals' balance, requiring stepping to move the centre of gravity in the direction of body movement. When repeated regularly, this may be stressful, requiring involvement of the right brain hemisphere, hence we investigated the existence of behavioral laterality in sheep during prolonged floor motions. Six sheep were restrained in pairs on a programmable rocking platform, in which they were unable to turn around. They were exposed to three continuous rocking motion treatments (roll, pitch or both) in a regular or irregular pattern for 1 h periods in a changeover design. Right forelimb and left hindlimb diagonal stepping was more frequent in response to the motion treatment of irregular roll and pitch, which previous research has suggested to be the most stressful from heart rate measurements. An overall strategy to maintain balance appeared to be the use of the right hindlimb as a stabilizer, which was repositioned least often of all limbs until towards the end of the hour of experimental treatment. Of each tested pair, sheep restrained on the left side of the rocking floor stepped significantly often than its partner restrained on the right side, and we postulate the existence of visuomotor lateralization as left restrained sheep were unable to view their partner within the field of view of their left eye. We also investigated which side sheep lie down on, which if left lateralized could explain our observed bipedal diagonal control of sheep balance under stress. From the observation of 412 web-based images of sheep, there was an overall left-sided laterality to their lying, as has been observed in cattle. We conclude that stepping activity in sheep in response to a motion stressor is lateralized, providing evidence that floor motion experienced in transport may induce stress responses.

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Long distance transport of livestock from Patagonia to central Chile involves both road and sea transport and has a potential impact on the welfare of animals. Fifty Bos taurus cattle of approximate age six months were exposed to a journey of four days, with both the sea and road components undertaken in a truck (roll-off roll-on system) with two pens of different dimensions. Thirty-two and eighteen cattle were randomly allocated to two treatment groups: Low and High welfare standards, which were provided 0.66 m2/head and 0.86 m2/head, respectively, and a fixed amount of feed and water daily to each pen, 1.25 kg hay/head and 3.1 L water/head in the Low welfare treatment and 2.22 kg/head and 5.6 L/head in the High welfare treatment, respectively. Low welfare animals had increased plasma total protein and albumin, which is suggested to be due to limited water availability, and also haptoglobin, suggesting inflammatory responses. Cattle in the High welfare treatment spent more time eating and ruminating than those in the Low space allowance, but they had increased cortisol at the end of the journey, perhaps reflecting increased fighting with more space. Cattle welfare in both treatments was adversely affected by the limited feed and water supplies, with increased beta-hydroxybutyrate at the end of the voyage; total protein was increased in just the low welfare standard group where low space allowance and less food and water was provided. Creatine phosphokinase also increased after the journey, compared with before, indicating bruising. Limiting feed and water availability to cattle in the low welfare treatment resulted in physiological evidence of undernutrition and low hydration status, but it also reduced the stress response, probably because there was less fighting.

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The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of lameness and specific causes of lameness on standing time, number of lying bouts and test day yield (TDY) in cows at pasture and cows which were housed. Data were collected from 200 cows from 10 farms where cows were at pasture and 200 cows from 10 farms where they were housed. Each farm was visited twice over 3 days between May and August (autumn and winter) of 2009. At the first visit, 10 lame cows, all with locomotion score (LS) 3, and 10 non-lame cows, all with LS 1, were selected per farm. Electronic data loggers were positioned on one hind leg of each cow to record standing time and transitions. These were removed 3 days later at the second visit. There was no significant difference in standing time between housed and pasture-based cows but lame cows stood for a mean 1.75 (SE 0.36) h/day less than non-lame cows in both systems. Cows with sole damage, wall damage, misshapen feet and infectious lameness all stood for less time than non-lame cows. Housed cows had a mean 1.4 more lying bouts per day than cows at pasture. Lame cows at pasture had 1.2 more lying bouts per day than non-lame cows but housed lame cattle had 0.8 fewer lying bouts than non-lame housed cattle, so overall the number of lying bouts in lame cows, housed or at pasture, was similar. The only lesion associated with a change in the number of lying bouts was sole damage with a mean 1.1 more lying bouts per day across systems than non-lame cows. Lame cows had lower TDY than non-lame cows and TDY was reduced more in lame cows when TDY was greater. In conclusion, standing times were similar in cows at pasture and in housed cows, but lying bouts were different. However, given the associations between standing time, lying bouts and TDY the results might be most strongly influenced by TDY, rather than system. Future studies investigating the impact of lameness on cow behaviour by system in cows with similar and a range of TDY would be informative.

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