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Objectives: To establish the etiology of pneumonia and to compare the yield of diagnostic techniques for diagnosis of Pneumocystis jiroveci and Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections in HIV-1-infected patients. Patients and Methods: Subjects underwent sputum induction and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Gram, Ziehl-Neelsen, silver stain (SS) and immunofluorescense staining (IF) for P. jiroveci, fluorescent stain for mycobacteria, PCR for P. jiroveci andM. tuberculosis, aerobic, fungal and mycobacterial cultures, respiratory viruses and CMV cultures were performed on the sputum and BAL. IgM for Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophyla pneumoniae, and Legionella pneumophila urinary antigen were also obtained. Results: Sixty patients were included. An etiologic diagnosis was made in 97 percent. Pneumocystisjiroveci was the most frequent etiology (58 percent) followed by Streptococcus pneumoniae (12 percent), and Mycobacterium avium complex (12 percent). Mycobacterium tuberculosis was found in 5 percent. Conclusions: The comparison of diagnostic methods for P. jiroveci showed a higher sensitivity of IF and SS in BAL than in sputum, however PCR was equally sensitive in both samples. With this approach a precise etiologic diagnosis was reached in the great majority of patients. The most common etiology was P. jiroveci. IF in BAL remains the gold standard for diagnosis of P. jiroveci pneumonia.

Objetivos: Establecer la etiología de la neumonía y comparar el rendimiento de diferentes técnicas para el diagnóstico de las infecciones por Pneumocystis jiroveci y Mycobacterium tuberculosis en pacientes con infección por virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH). Material y Métodos: De cada paciente se obtuvo esputo inducido y se efectuó LBA. A las muestras obtenidas se les realizó tinciones de Gram, Ziehl-Neelsen, plata e inmunofluores-cencia (IF) para P. jiroveci y M. tuberculosis; reacción de polimerasa en cadena (RPC) para ambos microorganismos; cultivos aeróbicos, fúngicos, para micobacterias, virus respiratorios y citomegalovirus. También se realizó determinación de IgM de Mycoplasma pneumoniae y Chlamydophyla pneumoniae y antígeno urinario de Legionella pneumophila. Resultados: Se incluyeron 60 pacientes, lográndose diagnóstico etiológico en 97 por ciento de los casos. Pneumocystis jiroveci fue la etiología más frecuente (58 por ciento), seguida por Streptococcus pneumoniae (12 por ciento) y Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) (12 por ciento). Mycobacterium tuberculosis fue encontrado en 5 por ciento. Conclusiones: La comparación de los métodos diagnósticos para P. jiroveci mostró una mayor sensibilidad de la IF y tinción de plata en LBA que en esputo; sin embargo, la RPC fue igualmente sensible en ambos tipos de muestras. Con esta estrategia se logró establecer etiología en la gran mayoría de los pacientes. La etiología más común fue P. jiroveci. IF en LBA sigue siendo el estándar para el diagnóstico de la neumonía por P. jiroveci.

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Globalization of health care seems to be irreversible and beyond cultural differences and local realities; consequently, medical education needs to have a common set of core principles or standards that may be applied worldwide. The aim of participating in assessment processes is to guarantee that medical education takes place in a sufficiently rich environment to promote extensive academic purposes. The Medical School of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (PUC) participated in three assessment processes that included three stages: internal assessment, external assessment, and accreditation judgment. Two of these assessments were voluntarily carried out following the standards set by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education-LCME, and they took place in 1997 and 2007. The other assessment was based on standards set by the Chilean accrediting organism, the National Committee for Undergraduate Program Accreditation (Comité Nacional de Acreditación de Pregrado-CNAP) and took place in the year 2001. In all three experiences, internal assessment was the most enriching stage, stimulating refections among students and teachers in order to recognize areas of strengths and weaknesses. External assessment processes, especially those based on international standards, are very important for the institutional and program development of Medical Schools. The PUC Medical School on its whole learnt how to carry out an assessment process and was able to improve several weaknesses without pressure, moving from quality assurance to quality enhancement. The present paper analyzes the major challenges involved in an external assessment process.

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Globalization of health care seems to be irreversible and beyond cultural differences and local realities; consequently, medical education needs to have a common set of core principles or standards that may be applied worldwide. The aim of participating in assessment processes is to guarantee that medical education takes place in a sufficiently rich environment to promote extensive academic purposes. The Medical School of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (PUC) participated in three assessment processes that included three stages: internal assessment, external assessment, and accreditation judgment. Two of these assessments were voluntarily carried out following the standards set by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education-LCME, and they took place in 1997 and 2007. The other assessment was based on standards set by the Chilean accrediting organism, the National Committee for Undergraduate Program Accreditation (Comité Nacional de Acreditación de Pregrado-CNAP) and took place in the year 2001. In all three experiences, internal assessment was the most enriching stage, stimulating refections among students and teachers in order to recognize areas of strengths and weaknesses. External assessment processes, especially those based on international standards, are very important for the institutional and program development of Medical Schools. The PUC Medical School on its whole learnt how to carry out an assessment process and was able to improve several weaknesses without pressure, moving from quality assurance to quality enhancement. The present paper analyzes the major challenges involved in an external assessment process.

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La espirometría es una prueba fundamental en la evaluación funcional respiratoria. Este test es utilizado frecuentemente en la práctica clínica y en estudios de poblaciones. Entre los diversos índices derivados de una espiración forzada, el VEF1 y la CVF son los más usados debido a su buena reproducibilidad, facilidad de su medición, y su grado de correlación con la etapa de la enfermedad, condición funcional, morbilidad y mortalidad. Considerando la importancia de aplicar procedimientos estandarizados para realizar espirometrías, un comité de especialistas en función pulmonar de la Sociedad Chilena de Enfermedades Respiratorias, elaboró este manual de procedimientos para realizar espirometrías. El objetivo de este manual es comunicar las normas internacionales para realizar espirometrías, a fin de promover su aplicación en la práctica clínica y de laboratorio. Además se propone una manera consensuada para informar e interpretar los valores espirométricos tanto en la práctica clínica como en el trabajo de laboratorio.

Spirometry is a essential test for assessing pulmonary function. This test is frequently used in clinical practice and population studies. Among the several indices derived from forced expiration, forced expiratory volume in the 1st second (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC)) are the most commonly used because of good reproducibility, ease of measurement, and correlation with disease stage, functional condition, morbidity and mortality. Considering the importance to apply standardized techniques for measuring spirometric indices, a committee of specialists on pulmonary function from the Chilean Society of Respiratory Diseases, has elaborated this manual of procedures on spirometry. The aim of this manual is to report the international standards for carrying out spirometry, to promote their application in clinical and laboratory practice. Besides a general assent way for interpreting and reporting spirometric values at clinical and at laboratory work is proposed.

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In an ideal clinical setting, empiric antimicrobial treatment prescribed in adult community acquired pneumonia (CAP) should be based on national etiological surveillance and in vitro susceptibility assays. Available information about etiology in ambulatory patients and intensive care unit (ICU) patients is scarce, compared to information obtained in hospitalized patients. In studies designed to explore the etiology of pneumonia, no microorganism is detected in 40-50% of patients, a fact that represents limited yields in diagnostic methods. In all settings, Streptococcus pneumoniae is the main respiratory pathogen recovered in adults CAP, being responsible of about 16% of cases among ambulatory patients and about 22% of those admitted to hospital and ICU. About one third of cases are caused by a small group of microorganisms: Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, respiratory viruses, Staphylococcus aureus, gramnegative bacillus, Legionella sp; each one is isolated in less than 10% of cases. In general, microorganism distribution varies scarcely in the following attending settings: ambulatory patients, common wards and ICU. An exception is represented by a higher frequency of gram negative bacillus, S. aureus and Legionella sp in ICU, and of C. pneumoniae in the ambulatory setting. In Chile, CAP etiology in hospitalized adult patients is similar to foreign reports; no systematic information has been collected about the etiology in neither ambulatory patients nor in severe CAP.

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In an ideal clinical setting, empiric antimicrobial treatment prescribed in adult community acquired pneumonia (CAP) should be based on national etiological surveillance and in vitro susceptibility assays. Available information about etiology in ambulatory patients and intensive care unit (ICU) patients is scarce, compared to information obtained in hospitalized patients. In studies designed to explore the etiology of pneumonia, no microorganism is detected in 40-50% of patients, a fact that represents limited yields in diagnostic methods. In all settings, Streptococcus pneumoniae is the main respiratory pathogen recovered in adults CAP, being responsible of about 16% of cases among ambulatory patients and about 22% of those admitted to hospital and ICU. About one third of cases are caused by a small group of microorganisms: Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, respiratory viruses, Staphylococcus aureus, gramnegative bacillus, Legionella sp; each one is isolated in less than 10% of cases. In general, microorganism distribution varies scarcely in the following attending settings: ambulatory patients, common wards and ICU. An exception is represented by a higher frequency of gram negative bacillus, S. aureus and Legionella sp in ICU, and of C. pneumoniae in the ambulatory setting. In Chile, CAP etiology in hospitalized adult patients is similar to foreign reports; no systematic information has been collected about the etiology in neither ambulatory patients nor in severe CAP.

En la situación clínica ideal, el tratamiento antimicrobiano empírico prescrito en la neumonía del adulto adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) debería estar basado en el resultado de los estudios microbiológicos realizados en el medio nacional. La información disponible sobre la etiología en el medio ambulatorio y la UCI es relativamente escasa, en comparación con la referida al medio intrahospitalario. En los estudios diseñados específicamente para estudiar los agentes causales, en 40-50% de los casos no se identifica el patógeno respiratorio, lo que pone de manifiesto las dificultades de los métodos diagnósticos. En todos los escenarios de atención, Streptococcus pneumoniae es el principal patógeno respiratorio aislado en la NAC del adulto, siendo responsable de 16% de los casos tratados en el medio ambulatorio y de alrededor de 22% de los casos admitidos al hospital y la UCI. Aproximadamente un tercio de los casos son causados por un conjunto de varios microorganismos: Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, virus respiratorios, Staphylococcus aureus, bacilos gramnegativos y Legionella sp, siendo cada uno responsable de menos de 10% de los casos. En general, la distribución de los microorganismos varía escasamente en los tres entornos de atención: ambulatorio, sala de cuidados generales y UCI. Entre las excepciones destaca una mayor frecuencia de infección por bacilos gramnegativos, S. aureus y Legionella sp en la UCI, y de C. pneumoniae en el medio ambulatorio. En Chile, la etiología de la NAC en el adulto hospitalizado es similar a la comunicada en estudios extranjeros, y no se dispone de información específica sobre la NAC de manejo ambulatorio y de la que cursa en forma grave.

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Se evaluó la exposición previa a legionella pneumophila de un grupo de 120 sujetos chilenos, sanos, menores de 20 años, estratificados según nivel socioeconómico. Las muestras de suero fueron analizadas, para la detección de anticuerpos de legionella pneumophila serogrupos 1 a 6, por técnica de inmunofluorescencia indirecta considerando positivos títulos iguales o mayores a 1:64. Doce de los 120 sujetos fueron positivos (10 por ciento); se observaron distintos grados de seroprevalencia según niveles socioeconómicos: 0/40 para el mas bajo; 2/40 (5 por ciento) en el nivel medio y 10/49 (25 por ciento) alto. El mayor título registrado fue 1:128. El nivel socioeconómico alto está asociado con la prevalencia mas alta de anticuerpos anti-legionella pneumophila en población chilena

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La Comisión ad hoc de la Sociedad Chilena de Enfermedades de Tórax y Tuberculosis luego de consultar numerosos especialistas ha elaborado un conjunto de recomendaciones sobre el informe espirométrico. Las principales recomendaciones son las siguientes: 1) mientras no se cuente con estándares nacionales se propone que se adopten los de Knudson et al. Se recomienda abandonar el uso del 80% del valor teórico como límite inferior de normalidad y reemplazarlo por el percentil 95 de la dispersión de valores normales de referencia de Knudson et al. 2) Se definen 4 trastornos espirométricos básicos : a) Restrición; b) Obstrucción con CVF normal; c) Obstrucción con CVF disminuída y d) Obstrucción mínima. Se establece una graduación de las alteraciones espirométricas considerando principalmente los valores VEF1 CVF. Se considera significativa la respuesta a la inhalación de un broncodilatador si VEF1 y/o CVF aumentan en 15% o más sobre su valor basal. 3) Se discuten las limitaciones del uso de la VVM y del FEF25-75. La VVM debería omitirse en la práctica pediátrica. En adultos su uso se limitaría a la evaluación pre-operatoria; la disminución aislada del FEF25-75 correspondería a obstrucción mínima

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