RESUMEN
Arterial blood gas (ABG) measurements at both maximum depth and at resurfacing prior to breathing have not previously been measured during free dives conducted to extreme depth in cold open-water conditions. An elite free diver was instrumented with a left radial arterial cannula connected to two sampling syringes through a low-volume splitting device. He performed two open-water dives to a depth of 60 m (197', 7 atmospheres absolute pressure) in the constant weight with fins competition format. ABG samples were drawn at 60 m (by a mixed-gas scuba diver) and again on resurfacing before breathing. An immersed surface static apnea, of identical length to the dives and with ABG sampling at identical times, was also performed. Both dives lasted approximately 2 min. Arterial partial pressure of oxygen ([Formula: see text]) increased during descent from an indicative baseline of 15.8 kPa (after hyperventilation and glossopharyngeal insufflation) to 42.8 and 33.3 kPa (dives 1 and 2) and decreased precipitously (to 8.2 and 8.6 kPa) during ascent. Arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide ([Formula: see text]) also increased from a low indicative baseline of 2.8 kPa to 6.3 and 5.1 kPa on dives 1 and 2; an increase not explained by metabolic production of CO2 alone since [Formula: see text] actually decreased during ascent (to 5.2 and 4.5 kPa). Surface static apnea caused a steady decrease in [Formula: see text] and increase in [Formula: see text] without the inflections provoked by depth changes. Lung compression and expansion provoke significant changes in both [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] during rapid descent and ascent on a deep free dive. These changes generally support predictive hypotheses and previous findings in less extreme settings.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Arterial blood gas measurements at both maximum depth and the surface before breathing on the same dive have not previously been obtained during deep breath-hold dives in cold open-water conditions and competition dive format. Such measurements were obtained in two dives to 60 m (197') of 2 min duration. Changes in arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide (an increase during descent, and a decrease during ascent) support previous observations in less extreme dives and environments.
Asunto(s)
Buceo , Agua , Análisis de los Gases de la Sangre , Contencion de la Respiración , Humanos , Masculino , Oxígeno , Presión ParcialRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Scrubbers in closed-circuit rebreather systems remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the exhaled gas. In an attempt to be more user-friendly and efficient, the ExtendAir® non-granular, pre-formed scrubber cartridge has been developed. The cartridge manufacturer claims twice the absorptive capacity of granular CO2 absorbent, with less variability, lower work of breathing, and reduced exposure to caustic chemicals after a flood. To our knowledge there are no published data that support these claims. METHODS: Cartridge (ExtendAir®) and granular (Sofnolime® 797) scrubbers of equal volume and mass were tested five times in an immersed and mechanically ventilated O2ptima rebreather. Exercise protocols involving staged (90 minutes 6 MET, followed by 2 MET) and continuous (6 MET) activity were simulated. We compared: duration until breakthrough, and variability in duration, to endpoints of 1.0 kPa and 0.5 kPa inspired partial pressure of CO2; inspiratory-expiratory pressure difference in the breathing loop; and pH of eluted water after a 5 minute flood. RESULTS: Mean difference in scrubber endurance was 0-20% in favour of the ExtendAir® cartridge, depending on exercise protocol and chosen CO2 endpoint. There were no meaningful differences in endpoint variability, inspiratory-expiratory pressure in the loop, or pH in the eluted water after a flood. CONCLUSIONS: Cartridge and granular scrubbers were very similar in duration, variability, ventilation pressures, and causticity after a flood. Our findings were not consistent with claims of substantial superiority for the ExtendAir® cartridge.
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Dióxido de Carbono/química , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Buceo , Humanos , Presión Parcial , Respiración , Dispositivos de Protección Respiratoria , AguaRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Diving rebreathers use canisters containing soda lime to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from expired gas. Soda lime has a finite ability to absorb CO2. Temperature sticks monitor the exothermic reaction between CO2 and soda lime to predict remaining absorptive capacity. The accuracy of these predictions was investigated in two rebreathers that utilise temperature sticks. METHODS: Inspiration and rEvo rebreathers filled with new soda lime were immersed in water at 19°C and operated on mechanical circuits whose ventilation and CO2-addition parameters simulated dives involving either moderate exercise (6 MET) throughout (mod-ex), or 90 minutes of 6 MET exercise followed by 2 MET exercise (low-ex) until breakthrough (inspired PCO2 [PiCO2] = 1 kPa). Simulated dives were conducted at surface pressure (sea-level) (low-ex: Inspiration, n = 5; rEvo, n = 5; mod-ex: Inspiration, n = 7, rEvo, n = 5) and at 3-6 metres' sea water (msw) depth (mod-ex protocol only: Inspiration, n = 8; rEvo, n = 5). RESULTS: Operated at surface pressure, both rebreathers warned appropriately in four of five low-ex tests but failed to do so in the 12 mod-ex tests. At 3-6 msw depth, warnings preceded breakthrough in 11 of 13 mod-ex tests. The rEvo warned conservatively in all five tests (approximately 60 minutes prior). Inspiration warnings immediately preceded breakthrough in six of eight tests, but were marginally late in one test and 13 minutes late in another. CONCLUSION: When operated at even shallow depth, temperature sticks provided timely warning of significant CO2 breakthrough in the scenarios examined. They are much less accurate during simulated exercise at surface pressure.
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Dióxido de Carbono , Buceo , Hidróxido de Sodio , Compuestos de Calcio/química , Hidróxido de Calcio/química , Dióxido de Carbono/química , Humanos , Respiración , Hidróxido de Sodio/química , Temperatura , AguaRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Diving rebreathers use "scrubber" canisters containing soda lime to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the expired gas. Soda lime has a finite ability to absorb CO2. We undertook an experiment to determine whether the manner of storage of a partly used scrubber affected subsequent CO2 absorption. METHODS: An Evolution Plus™ rebreather was mechanically ventilated in a benchtop circuit. Respiratory minute volume was 45 L·min-1 and CO2 was introduced to the expiratory limb at 2 L·min-1. The scrubber canister was packed with 2.64 kg of Sofnolime 797™. Scrubbers were run in this circuit for 90 minutes then removed from the rebreather and stored in packed form under one of three conditions: "open" (unsealed) for 28 days (n = 4); vacuum "sealed" in an airtight plastic bag for 28 days (n = 5); or open overnight (n = 5). Following storage the scrubber canisters were placed back in the rebreather and run as above until the PCO2 in the inspired gas exceeded 1 kPa. The total duration of operation to reach this end-point in each storage condition was compared. RESULTS: The mean run times to reach an inspired CO2 of 1 kPa were 188, 241, and 239 minutes in the open-28-day, the sealed-28-day and the open-overnight storage conditions, respectively. CONCLUSION: Rebreather divers should consider placing partially used soda lime scrubber canisters in vacuum-sealed plastic bags if storing them for longer periods than overnight. If a partially used scrubber canister is to be used again the next day then the storage modality is unlikely to influence scrubber efficacy.
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Compuestos de Calcio/química , Dióxido de Carbono/química , Buceo , Dispositivos de Protección Respiratoria , Hidróxido de Sodio/química , Hidróxido de Calcio/química , Humanos , Óxidos/química , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Diving rebreathers use canisters containing sodalime preparations to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the expired gas. These preparations have a limited absorptive capacity and therefore may limit dive duration. The Inspiration™ rebreather is designed for use with Sofnolime 797™ but some divers use Spherasorb™ as an alternative. There are no published data comparing the CO2-absorbing efficacy of these sodalime preparations in an Inspiration rebreather. METHODS: An Inspiration rebreather was operated in a benchtop circuit under conditions simulating work at 6 metabolic equivalents (MET). Ventilation was maintained at 45 L·min⻹ (tidal volume 1·5 L; respiratory rate 30 min⻹) with CO2 introduced to the expiratory limb at 2·L·min⻹. The PiCO2 was continuously monitored in the inspiratory limb. The rebreather canister was packed to full volume with either Sofnolime or Spherasorb and 10 trials were conducted (five using each absorbent), in which the circuit was continuously run until the PiCO2 reached 1 kPa ('breakthrough'). Peak inspiratory and expiratory pressures during tidal ventilation of the circuit were also recorded. RESULTS: The mean operating duration to CO2 breakthrough was 138 ± 4 (SD) minutes for 2.38·kg Spherasorb and 202 ± minutes for 2.64·kg Sofnolime (P < 0.0001). The difference between peak inspiratory and expiratory pressures was 10% less during use of Spherasorb, suggesting lower work of breathing. CONCLUSIONS: Under conditions simulating work at 6 MET during use of an Inspiration rebreather a canister packed with Spherasorb reached CO2 breakthrough 32% earlier with 10% less mass than Sofnolime packed to similar volume. Divers cannot alternate between these two preparations and expect the same endurance.
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Absorción Fisicoquímica , Compuestos de Calcio/química , Hidróxido de Calcio/química , Dióxido de Carbono/química , Óxidos/química , Dispositivos de Protección Respiratoria , Hidróxido de Sodio/química , Buceo , Inhalación , Reproducibilidad de los Resultados , Respiración , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Closed-circuit underwater rebreather apparatus (CCR) recycles expired gas through a carbon dioxide (CO2) 'scrubber'. Prior to diving, users perform a five-minute 'prebreathe' during which they self-check for symptoms of hypercapnia that might indicate a failure in the scrubber. There is doubt that this strategy is valid. METHODS: Thirty divers were block-randomized to breathe for five minutes on a circuit in two of the following three conditions: normal scrubber, partly-failed scrubber, and absent scrubber. Subjects were blind to trial allocation and instructed to terminate the prebreathe on suspicion of hypercapnia. RESULTS: Early termination was seen in 0/20, 2/20, and 15/20 of the normal, partly-failed, and absent absorber conditions, respectively. Subjects in the absent group experienced a steady, uncontrolled rise in inspired (PICO2) and end-tidal CO2 (PETCO2). Seven subjects exhibited little or no increase in minute volume yet reported dyspnoea at termination, suggesting a biochemically-mediated stimulus to terminate. This was consistent with results in the partly-failed condition (which resulted in a plateaued mean PICO2 near 20 mmHg), where a small increase in ventilation typically compensated for the inspired CO2 increase. Consequently, mean PETCO2 did not change and in the absence of a hypercapnic biochemical stimulus, subjects were very insensitive to this condition. CONCLUSIONS: While prebreathes are useful to evaluate other primary functions, the five-minute prebreathe is insensitive for CO2 scrubber faults in a rebreather. Partly-failed conditions are dangerous because most will not be detected at the surface, even though they may become very important at depth.
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Absorción Fisicoquímica , Dióxido de Carbono/química , Buceo , Hipercapnia/prevención & control , Dispositivos de Protección Respiratoria , Adulto , Dióxido de Carbono/análisis , Falla de Equipo , Femenino , Depuradores de Gas , Humanos , Hipercapnia/diagnóstico , Hipercapnia/etiología , Masculino , Método Simple Ciego , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Deep dives using rebreather devices result in oxygen exposures that carry a risk of cerebral oxygen toxicity. Elevation of arterial CO2 levels increases this risk. CO2 retention may occur during the deep working phases of dives, but it has not been investigated in 'real world' dives at the end of resting decompression when oxygen exposures are peaking, often to levels higher than recommended maxima. METHODS: We conducted an observational field study to measure end tidal CO2 (Petco2) in divers surfacing after decompression. Sixteen rebreather divers conducted two dives and two completed one dive (a total of 34 dives) to depths ranging from 44-55 msw. Bottom times ranged from 35 to 56 min and time spent on decompression ranged from 40 to 92 min. The first breaths on reaching the surface after removing the rebreather mouthpiece were taken through a portable capnograph. The Petco2 was recorded for the first breath that produced a clean capnography trace. Petco2 measurement was repeated for each subject 2-3 h after diving to give paired observations. RESULTS: There were no differences between mean surfacing Petco2 [36.8 mmHg (SD 3.0)] and the mean Petco2 made later after diving [36.9 mmHg (SD 4.0)]. One subject on one dive returned a surfacing Petco2 higher than a nominal upper limit of 45 mmHg. DISCUSSION: We found no general tendency to CO2 retention during decompression. It is plausible that breaching oxygen exposure limits during resting decompression is less hazardous than equivalent breaches when exercising at deep depths. Mitchell SJ, Mesley P, Hannam JA. End tidal CO2 in recreational rebreather divers on surfacing after decompression dives.