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OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to evaluate an antepartum testing program based on twice-weekly nonstress testing and amniotic fluid evaluation in pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus and to weight the test components in the prediction of fetal distress requiring cesarean delivery. STUDY DESIGN: During the 4-year period of 1987 through 1990, 2134 women with pregnancies complicated by diabetes underwent antepartum testing. Of these 1501 women (class A1, n = 505; A2-diet, n = 305; A2-insulin, n = 580; B, n = 71; C to D, n = 29; R to F, n = 11) were delivered within 4 days of their last test. Categoric analysis of data was performed according to diabetic class, fetal heart rate results, and the presence of decreased, normal, or increased amniotic fluid assessment. A univariate logistical regression was first conducted with cesarean delivery for fetal distress as outcome variable by use of the following variables: fetal weight and sex, diabetic class, gestational age at delivery, presence of additional indications for antepartum testing, largest vertical pocket, amniotic fluid index (summation of the four quadrants of the largest vertical pocket), nonstress test reactivity (two accelerations of > or = 15 beats/min of 15 seconds' duration), presence of decelerations (> or = 15 beats/min for 15 seconds) during the nonstress test, and the interactions of the nonstress test with deceleration, largest vertical pocket, and amniotic fluid index. Multivariate analysis was then applied to predict the best model. RESULTS: No stillbirths occurred within 4 days of the last antepartum test. However, the corrected stillbirth rate of the entire tested population was 1.4 per 1000. Eighty-five women required cesarean delivery for fetal distress. The factors most predictive of cesarean delivery for fetal distress (p < 0.05, odds ratio and 95% confidence interval) were a deceleration (3.60, 2.14 to 6.06), nonreactive nonstress test (2.68, 1.60 to 4.49), and the interaction of both a nonreactive nonstress test and decelerations (5.63, 2.67 to 11.9). Amniotic fluid assessment by largest vertical pocket or amniotic fluid index were not statistically significant. The multivariate analysis selected the interaction of nonstress test and deceleration as the best significant predictor for cesarean delivery for fetal distress. CONCLUSION: An antepartum fetal surveillance program using twice-weekly nonstress test and fluid index assessment in pregnancies complicated by diabetes was successful in preventing stillbirth. The absence of fetal heart rate reactivity and the presence of decelerations were predictive of the diagnosis of fetal distress in labor requiring cesarean delivery. Ultrasonographic assessment of amniotic fluid volume was not a significant predictor of fetal distress in labor in the diabetic pregnancy.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a decreased incidence of nonreactive nonstress tests (NSTs) in antepartum testing was attributable to the addition of fetal movement detection to the standard NST. METHODS: Monitors with standard fetal heart rate recording capabilities were used, as were new monitors producing a Doppler-detected recording of fetal movement (NST-fetal movement). Cross-sectional retrospective analysis of NST results was carried out by chi 2. RESULTS: Comparison of the 10-month period before fetal movement detection to the 10 months including NST-fetal movement monitoring showed a significant decrease in nonreactive NSTs from 5.7% to 3.3% (chi 2 = 61.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.97-0.98). This reduction in nonreactive tests disappeared (3.3% to 5.1%) when the NST-fetal movement-capable monitors were no longer available (chi 2 = 24.2, 95% CI 1.01-1.03). CONCLUSIONS: Nonreactive NSTs decreased by 58% with the introduction of fetal movement monitoring in our antepartum testing center and increased when the NST-fetal movement-capable monitors were removed. A reduced incidence of nonreactive NSTs associated with NST-Doppler-detected fetal movements should effect a savings in both time and resources.

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OBJECTIVE: The four-chamber view of the heart is an important component of the ultrasonographic examination of the fetus. However, during the second trimester of pregnancy the fetal heart cannot always be imaged in every patient. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the rate of successful imaging of the fetal heart during the second trimester and to determine factors that may influence imaging. METHODS: Seven hundred and nine second trimester fetuses were examined and an attempt was made to obtain the four-chamber and outflow tract views of the heart. Analysis included multiple logistic regression models of the main effects and interactions of ten candidate variables. RESULTS: The four chambers and outflow tracts were imaged in 643 fetuses (90.7%) and not imaged in 66 (9.3%). Fifty-two of 709 patients (7.3%) had had previous surgery. In the 52 patients with a history of previous surgery, the heart could not be imaged in 18 (34%). Six hundred and fifty-seven patients (92.7%) did not have previous surgery. Of this group, the fetal heart could not be imaged in 48 (7.3%). In only one fetus in which the heart could not be imaged was it because of fetal position. Three independent risk factors that influenced imaging of the fetal heart were gestational age, maternal adipose tissue thickness, and previous lower abdominal surgery. Increasing gestational age increased the probability of imaging the heart, whereas increasing adipose tissue thickness and a history of previous surgery decreased the probability of imaging the heart. COMMENTS: When the fetal heart cannot be imaged during the second trimester, these factors should be identified. Using data from this study, the gestational age at which the highest probability of imaging the heart can be determined if the thickness of the adipose tissue and a history of lower abdominal surgery are known.

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OBJECTIVE: The null hypothesis was that offspring of women undergoing first-trimester chorionic villus sampling do not experience a rate of birth defects exceeding background rates. STUDY DESIGN: Follow-up information regarding major malformations was prospectively sought on offspring of 4105 women undergoing first-trimester chorionic villus sampling from nine centers participating in a collaborative study with the Cook obstetrics and gynecology catheter. These data were compared with data from the Collaborative Perinatal Project and other registries. RESULTS: A total of 84 offspring with major malformations was identified (2.36%). Compared with background rates, there was no increase in the incidence of total malformations or specific malformations (including limb reduction defects) in the subjects. One institution experienced all three limb reduction defects in this series; the probability of this occurring by chance alone is < 1%. CONCLUSION: Chorionic villus sampling was not found to result in an increase in major birth defects or in specific categories of birth defects in this series.

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BACKGROUND: Placental chorioangiomas are the most common tumors of the placenta, occurring in 1% of all pregnancies. With the increasing use of ultrasound, prenatal recognition of these tumors is becoming more common. CASE: A 36-year-old woman presented at 28 weeks' gestation with an intrauterine mass suggested by color flow and Doppler studies to be a vascular tumor. Because of the association of these findings to nonimmune fetal hydrops, management included umbilical blood sampling and intravascular transfusion for fetal anemia. This intervention temporarily corrected the hydrops and significantly prolonged the pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Color flow mapping and Doppler flow studies of intrauterine tumors associated with fetal nonimmune hydrops can be helpful in both diagnosis and management.

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OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to thoroughly investigate the risk factors of uterine rupture in patients undergoing trial of labor after cesarean section. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a case-control study of 70 patients with prior cesarean delivery with uterine rupture during trial of labor between January 1983 and June 1990. The risk factors of uterine rupture were identified, and the estimates of the relative risks were reported. RESULTS: The risk of uterine rupture was increased in patients who had an excessive amount of oxytocin, who had experienced dysfunctional labor, and who had a history of two or more cesarean deliveries. Epidural anesthesia, macrosomia, history of successful vaginal delivery after cesarean section, unknown uterine scar, and history of cesarean delivery because of cephalopelvic disproportion were not associated with uterine rupture. CONCLUSIONS: We recommend that all patients with a history of cesarean delivery be observed closely for progression of labor. Recognition of an active-phase arrest disorder, despite adequate augmentation with oxytocin, requires operative delivery.

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Twin pregnancies have higher perinatal morbidity and mortality rates than singleton pregnancies. Researchers have demonstrated that one major benefit of prenatal care in the twin gestation is reduced fetal death rate. This study to determine the relationship of nonstress tests (NSTs) to pregnancy outcome in twin gestations comprised 665 women who delivered at Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Women's Hospital from January 1985 to January 1989. These patients, all of whom had prenatal care (PNC), were subdivided into two groups: (1) PNC and NSTs and (2) PNC and no NSTs. The groups did not differ statistically with regard to gravidity, parity and abortions. NSTs were selectively done on twin gestations complicated by discordancy or other fetal/maternal complications. Ten pregnancies were complicated by fetal demise of one or both twins in patients who received prenatal care without NSTs. Among the NST group there was one fetal demise. Although the NST group had fewer fetal deaths, the reduction was not statistically significant (P = .062). Infant birth weight was identified as a confounder because the NST group had a statistically higher mean birth weight. Definitive proof of the ability of NSTs to reduce the fetal death rate in twin gestations complicated by discordancy or other pregnancy complications awaits a large, prospective, randomized trial.

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OBJECTIVE: The midwifery service at our hospital has been observed to have a 2% cesarean birth rate consistently over a 10-year period. There are substantial differences in labor management style between the midwives and physicians. We sought to test the hypothesis that the low cesarean birth rate on the midwifery service was the result of patient selection bias. METHODS: A randomized blinded clinical trial was conducted in which 492 low-risk patients were assigned to either physician or midwifery management. The provider responsible for labor management was unable to determine group assignment. Patients in the midwifery group were managed by previously established protocols, and outcome was attributed to the midwives even if the patients subsequently required transfer to physician management. Route of delivery was the primary outcome measurement. Continuous variables were analyzed using Student t test and discrete variables using chi 2. RESULTS: There were no demographic differences between the groups, and the admission pelvic examinations were the same. The patients assigned to the midwifery group had a 2.1% cesarean birth rate, whereas those assigned to physician management had a 0.4% rate. The higher rate of operative vaginal deliveries in the physician group was statistically significant. There were no differences in neonatal outcomes. The physician-managed group had significantly more episiotomies and third- and fourth-degree extensions. CONCLUSIONS: The 2% cesarean birth rate observed on the midwifery service appeared to be the result of patient selection bias. A low cesarean birth rate can be achieved by either physician or midwifery management in a selected low-risk population.

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OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the value of discordant morphometric measurements as identifiers of Down syndrome by evaluating the relationship of biparietal diameter, femur length, biparietal diameter/femur length ratio, and cephalic index between a group of fetuses with trisomy 21 and a control population. STUDY DESIGN: Biometric measurements from 48 fetuses with trisomy were reviewed and compared with 107 normal fetuses of similar gestational age. Data were analyzed in 2-week gestational age intervals to determine the effect of gestational age on ultrasonographic detection of Down syndrome. Outcome measures were subject to least-squares linear regression and the t test for analysis. RESULTS: A positive relationship between abnormal morphometric measurements and fetuses with Down syndrome was detected but only during specific weeks of pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Although it appears that biometric measurements may be useful for Down syndrome, further study is needed before its widespread introduction into clinical practice.

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This study examined whether there were differences between the umbilical artery systolic-diastolic (S/D) ratio and resistance index (RI) in patients with normal fetuses living at sea level (group I) and those living between 4,200 and 4,500 feet above sea level (group II). Linear regression demonstrated a significant association (P less than 0.001) between gestational age and the S/D ratio and RI for groups I (n = 100) and II (n = 128). Least-squares regression analysis demonstrated no significant differences in slopes or intercepts between groups I and II. The results would suggest that altitude, up to 4,500 feet above sea level, does not affect umbilical artery Doppler resistance in normal fetuses.

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The purpose of this study is to evaluate the use of transvaginal ultrasound in the diagnosis of placenta previa and to assess the risk of bleeding secondary to the placement of the vaginal transducer. Thirty-eight patients with an estimated gestational age equal to or greater than 26 weeks and the diagnosis of suspected placenta previa gave their consent and were randomized to two groups. Randomization was stratified by patient weight and anterior or posterior placental location. Group 1 (n = 20) had complete obstetric ultrasounds using linear and sector transducers. Group 2 (n = 18) had similar examinations followed by transvaginal ultrasound scans. Patients were rescanned to follow placental location and fetal growth parameters. On abdominal ultrasound, the posterior placenta (n = 17) was often shadowed by fetal parts. The ease of placental visualization was rated on a four-point scale with 1 being the clearest. The mean clarity score for posterior placentas on abdominal ultrasound in Group 2 was 1.6 and on transvaginal ultrasound was 1.0, p < 0.04. The use of transvaginal ultrasound consistently revealed greater clarity of diagnosis in these patients. No patient in either group experienced increased vaginal bleeding following the scanning sessions. Transvaginal ultrasound was most beneficial for those patients with posterior placenta previas because of increased clarity of diagnosis, decreased time of scanning, and no increased incidence of hemorrhage.

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Our definition of hydramnios is an amniotic fluid index of 24 cm or greater. We evaluated by ultrasound examination 49 consecutive patients who met this definition of hydramnios. Of these, 22 (44.9%) had anomalies visible by ultrasound. The combination of hydramnios, abnormal hand posturing, and any other anomaly created a constellation of sonographic findings enabling us to predict six specific autosomal trisomies (27.27%): three trisomy 18, two trisomy 21, and one trisomy 13. The 27 fetuses with "idiopathic hydramnios" (no identifiable anomaly or abnormal hand posturing) had normal karyotypes. We recommend that any patient with confirmed hydramnios have a detailed ultrasound examination by an experienced sonographer, with special attention paid to the heart, face, and hands. If no abnormality is seen and the hands are normally postured, expectant management may be appropriate. If the late second- or third-trimester fetus displays abnormal hand posturing with any other abnormality, rapid karyotyping by funipuncture or placental biopsy should be recommended to facilitate appropriate management.

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The error associated with regression analysis methods for the ultrasonographic estimation of fetal weight in the suspected macrosomic fetus, approximately 10%, is clinically unacceptable. This study was undertaken to evaluate the applicability of an emerging technique, biologically simulated intelligence, to this problem. One hundred patients with suspected macrosomic fetuses underwent ultrasonographic measurements of biparietal diameter, head and abdominal circumference, femur length, abdominal subcutaneous tissue, and amniotic fluid index. The biologically simulated intelligence model included gestational age, fundal height, age, gravidity, and height. The model was then compared with results obtained from previously published formulas relying on the abdominal circumference and femur length. The biologically simulated intelligence yielded an average error of 4.7% from actual birth weight, statistically better (p = 0.001) than the results obtained from regression models.

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Six hundred twenty-nine postterm patients with reliable dates were evaluated for expectant management. Patients with medical or obstetric complications, a Bishop score greater than 6 or abnormal antepartum testing were ineligible for such management. The incidences of macrosomia, fetal distress necessitating cesarean section and low five-minute Apgar scores were similar in patients with labor induction as compared to those managed expectantly. The cesarean section rate was significantly lower in patients who underwent induction for a Bishop score greater than 6 as compared to those followed expectantly (15% vs. 28%). The lowest cesarean section rate was seen in patients with Bishop scores greater than 8 (5%) versus 15% in patients with Bishop scores of 6-8.

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This study was undertaken to determine the incidence and associations of uterine rupture and dehiscence with an attempted vaginal birth after cesarean section. The charts from 137 patients who had uterine scar separation after a previous cesarean section from 1983 to 1989 were examined. Approximately 9.3% of the 119,395 women who were delivered in that interval had a prior cesarean section. Of those, 68.8% underwent a trial of labor with a 79.2% success rate. The uterine rupture rate in this latter group was 0.8%, while an additional 0.7% had a bloodless dehiscence. Bleeding and pain were unlikely findings with a uterine scar separation (3.4% and 7.6%, respectively). The most common manifestation of a scar separation was a prolonged fetal heart rate deceleration leading to operative intervention (70.3%). We conclude that, although the incidence of uterine rupture was low, the event is most often seen as an acute emergency. Prevention should be directed toward timely diagnosis and prompt management of labor dystocias. Staff and facilities for safe management of a uterine scar separation are a requisite for the conduct of a vaginal birth after previous cesarean section.

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Controversy surrounds the issue of recommending cytogenetic studies in second-trimester fetuses with fetal choroid plexus cysts. To assist in clarifying this issue, a prospective study was designed to describe the association between fetal choroid plexus cysts and aneuploidy in a large population. During a 3-year period 7350 women at 15 to 22 weeks' gestation underwent an ultrasonographic evaluation. Fetal choroid plexus cysts were diagnosed in 71 (0.96%) of these pregnancies. Sixty-two of the 71 patients elected to undergo amniocentesis. An abnormal karyotype was identified in four (6.4%) of these fetuses. One fetus had trisomy 21, and three fetuses were diagnosed with trisomy 18. These data indicate that it is reasonable to offer genetic counseling and cytogenetic studies in those patients identified as having a fetal choroid plexus cyst.

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The importance of obtaining cytogenetic studies on antenatally diagnosed structural malformations is well recognized. In two cases, three fetal compartments were sampled, each resulting in successful cytogenetic studies. Fluid was obtained under ultrasound guidance from amniotic fluid, fetal ascites and cystic hygroma fluid. Fluid from the hygroma itself may be the easiest compartment to analyze.

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To delineate any possible prognostic indicators, we reviewed the ultrasonographic and nonmorphometric findings in 19 antenatally diagnosed cases of nonimmune hydrops fetalis in which it was chosen to continue the pregnancy. Thirteen fetuses died and six survived. Of all parameters examined, including associated anomalies, abnormal karyotype, location of serous fluid, anemia, and possible cause of nonimmune hydrops fetalis, the most sensitive prognostic indicator was the real-time-directed M-mode echocardiographic measurement of the biventricular outer dimension in diastole. All fetuses with biventricular outer dimensions greater than 95% died, whereas all but one with normal biventricular outer dimensions had resolution of nonimmune hydrops fetalis and survived. This was highly significant (p less than 0.001) with the predictive value of a normal biventricular outer dimension being 86% and the predictive value of an enlarged biventricular outer dimension being 100%.

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A general description and discussion of the normal head and spine, and major fetal anomalies has been presented. It is important to remember that there can be wide variability in the structural findings noted in the fetus with ventricular dilatation or abnormal cerebellar development. If an abnormality of the fetal head and spine is seen, it is important to carefully assess other areas of fetal anatomy because of the increased likelihood of coexisting anomalies. Because of the increased incidence of chromosomal abnormalities, evaluation by percutaneous umbilical blood sampling, amniocentesis or placental biopsy is recommended for all structural abnormalities of the fetal head and spine. The best clinical approach for the ultrasonologist is to accurately describe and quantify the abnormalities for geneticist, pediatrician and or neurosurgeon to discuss the prognosis. Accurate evaluation of the type, location and extent of a neural tube defect is important to enable the family to understand possible outcomes of the pregnancy.

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Sonographic technology has given the prenatal diagnostician the ability to accurately visualize fetal malformations. This article demonstrates the currently available capability of applying sonographically derived information concerning fetal dysmorphology to our knowledge of genetic disorders and syndromes. As a result, there can be a significant improvement in the management and counseling of these patients. After an initial discussion of normal embryology, principles of abdominal ultrasonography are discussed and applied to the following anomalies: omphalocele, gastroschisis, diaphragmatic hernia, duodenal atresia, other intestinal atresias and stenoses, renal anomalies, and obstructive uropathies.

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