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BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and AD brain shows impaired insulin signalling. The role of peripheral insulin resistance on AD aetiopathogenesis in non-diabetic patients is still debated. Here we evaluated the influence of insulin resistance on brain glucose metabolism, grey matter volume and white matter lesions (WMLs) in non-diabetic AD subjects. METHODS: In total, 130 non-diabetic AD subjects underwent MRI and [18F]FDG PET scans with arterial cannula insertion for radioactivity measurement. T1 Volumetric and FLAIR sequences were acquired on a 3-T MRI scanner. These subjects also had measurement of glucose and insulin levels after a 4-h fast on the same day of the scan. Insulin resistance was calculated by the updated homeostatic model assessment (HOMA2). For [18F]FDG analysis, cerebral glucose metabolic rate (rCMRGlc) parametric images were generated using spectral analysis with arterial plasma input function. RESULTS: In this non-diabetic AD population, HOMA2 was negatively associated with hippocampal rCMRGlc, along with total grey matter volumes. No significant correlation was observed between HOMA2, hippocampal volume and WMLs. CONCLUSIONS: In non-diabetic AD, peripheral insulin resistance is independently associated with reduced hippocampal glucose metabolism and with lower grey matter volume, suggesting that peripheral insulin resistance might influence AD pathology by its action on cerebral glucose metabolism and on neurodegeneration.
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Enfermedad de Alzheimer , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2 , Resistencia a la Insulina , Enfermedad de Alzheimer/complicaciones , Enfermedad de Alzheimer/diagnóstico por imagen , Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagen , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2/complicaciones , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2/diagnóstico por imagen , Fluorodesoxiglucosa F18 , Glucosa , Humanos , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética , Tomografía de Emisión de PositronesRESUMEN
An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.
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BACKGROUND: Liraglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogue currently approved for type 2 diabetes and obesity. Preclinical evidence in transgenic models of Alzheimer's disease suggests that liraglutide exerts neuroprotective effects by reducing amyloid oligomers, normalising synaptic plasticity and cerebral glucose uptake, and increasing the proliferation of neuronal progenitor cells. The primary objective of the study is to evaluate the change in cerebral glucose metabolic rate after 12 months of treatment with liraglutide in participants with Alzheimer's disease compared to those who are receiving placebo. METHODS/DESIGN: ELAD is a 12-month, multi-centre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase IIb trial of liraglutide in participants with mild Alzheimer's dementia. A total of 206 participants will be randomised to receive either liraglutide or placebo as a daily injection for a year. The primary outcome will be the change in cerebral glucose metabolic rate in the cortical regions (hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, and posterior cingulate) from baseline to follow-up in the treatment group compared with the placebo group. The key secondary outcomes are the change from baseline to 12 months in z scores for clinical and cognitive measures (Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale and Executive domain scores of the Neuropsychological Test Battery, Clinical Dementia Rating Sum of Boxes, and Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study-Activities of Daily Living) and the incidence and severity of treatment-emergent adverse events or clinically important changes in safety assessments. Other secondary outcomes are 12-month change in magnetic resonance imaging volume, diffusion tensor imaging parameters, reduction in microglial activation in a subgroup of participants, reduction in tau formation and change in amyloid levels in a subgroup of participants measured by tau and amyloid imaging, and changes in composite scores using support machine vector analysis in the treatment group compared with the placebo group. DISCUSSION: Alzheimer's disease is a leading cause of morbidity worldwide. As available treatments are only symptomatic, the search for disease-modifying therapies is a priority. If the ELAD trial is successful, liraglutide and GLP-1 analogues will represent an important class of compounds to be further evaluated in clinical trials for Alzheimer's treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01843075 . Registration 30 April 2013.
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Enfermedad de Alzheimer/tratamiento farmacológico , Encéfalo/efectos de los fármacos , Receptor del Péptido 1 Similar al Glucagón/agonistas , Glucosa/metabolismo , Hipoglucemiantes/uso terapéutico , Liraglutida/uso terapéutico , Fármacos Neuroprotectores/uso terapéutico , Actividades Cotidianas , Enfermedad de Alzheimer/metabolismo , Enfermedad de Alzheimer/fisiopatología , Enfermedad de Alzheimer/psicología , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Encéfalo/fisiopatología , Ensayos Clínicos Fase II como Asunto , Cognición/efectos de los fármacos , Método Doble Ciego , Receptor del Péptido 1 Similar al Glucagón/metabolismo , Humanos , Hipoglucemiantes/efectos adversos , Liraglutida/efectos adversos , Memoria/efectos de los fármacos , Estudios Multicéntricos como Asunto , Fármacos Neuroprotectores/efectos adversos , Ensayos Clínicos Controlados Aleatorios como Asunto , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Factores de Tiempo , Resultado del Tratamiento , Reino UnidoRESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: To determine whether the tumor necrosis factor α inhibitor etanercept is well tolerated and obtain preliminary data on its safety in Alzheimer disease dementia. METHODS: In a double-blind study, patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease dementia were randomized (1:1) to subcutaneous etanercept (50 mg) once weekly or identical placebo over a 24-week period. Tolerability and safety of this medication was recorded including secondary outcomes of cognition, global function, behavior, and systemic cytokine levels at baseline, 12 weeks, 24 weeks, and following a 4-week washout period. This trial is registered with EudraCT (2009-013400-31) and ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01068353). RESULTS: Forty-one participants (mean age 72.4 years; 61% men) were randomized to etanercept (n = 20) or placebo (n = 21). Etanercept was well tolerated; 90% of participants (18/20) completed the study compared with 71% (15/21) in the placebo group. Although infections were more common in the etanercept group, there were no serious adverse events or new safety concerns. While there were some interesting trends that favored etanercept, there were no statistically significant changes in cognition, behavior, or global function. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that subcutaneous etanercept (50 mg/wk) was well tolerated in this small group of patients with Alzheimer disease dementia, but a larger more heterogeneous group needs to be tested before recommending its use for broader groups of patients. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study shows Class I evidence that weekly subcutaneous etanercept is well tolerated in Alzheimer disease dementia.
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Enfermedad de Alzheimer/tratamiento farmacológico , Antiinflamatorios no Esteroideos/farmacología , Inmunoglobulina G/farmacología , Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa/antagonistas & inhibidores , Anciano , Antiinflamatorios no Esteroideos/administración & dosificación , Antiinflamatorios no Esteroideos/efectos adversos , Método Doble Ciego , Etanercept , Femenino , Humanos , Inmunoglobulina G/administración & dosificación , Inmunoglobulina G/efectos adversos , Inyecciones Subcutáneas , Masculino , Receptores del Factor de Necrosis Tumoral/administración & dosificación , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: Frontostriatal circuitry is critical to learning processes, and its disruption may underlie maladaptive decision making and the generation of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. However, there is a paucity of evidence directly examining the role of modulatory neurotransmitters on frontostriatal function in humans. In order to probe the effects of modulation on frontostriatal circuitry during learning and to test whether disruptions in learning processes may be related to the pathogenesis of psychosis, the authors explored the brain representations of reward prediction error and incentive value, two key reinforcement learning parameters, before and after methamphetamine challenge. METHOD: Healthy volunteers (N=18) underwent functional MRI (fMRI) scanning while performing a reward learning task on three occasions: after placebo, after methamphetamine infusion (0.3 mg/kg body weight), and after pretreatment with 400 mg of amisulpride and then methamphetamine infusion. Brain fMRI representations of learning signals, calculated using a reinforcement Q-learning algorithm, were compared across drug conditions. RESULTS: In the placebo condition, reward prediction error was coded in the ventral striatum bilaterally and incentive value in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex bilaterally. Reward prediction error and incentive value signals were disrupted by methamphetamine in the left nucleus accumbens and left ventromedial prefrontal cortex, respectively. Psychotic symptoms were significantly correlated with incentive value disruption in the ventromedial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortex. Amisulpride pretreatment did not significantly alter methamphetamine-induced effects. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate that methamphetamine impairs brain representations of computational parameters that underpin learning. They also demonstrate a significant link between psychosis and abnormal monoamine-regulated learning signals in the prefrontal and cingulate cortices.