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The seeds of cultivated peanut, Arachis hypogaea, are an agronomically important crop produced for human nutrition, oilseed and feed stock. Peanut seed is the single most expensive variable input cost and thus producers require seed with excellent performance in terms of germination efficiency. During the maturation process, triglycerides are stored in oil bodies as an energy resource during germination and seedling development. The stability of oil body membranes is essential for nutrient mobilization during germination. This study focused on evaluating the phytosterol composition in seed components including the kernel, embryo (heart), and seed coat or skin. Samples of different maturity classes were analyzed for macronutrient and phytosterol content. The three biosynthetic end products in the phytosterol pathway, ß-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol, comprised 82.29%, 86.39% and 94.25% of seed hearts, kernels and seed coats, respectively. Stigmasterol concentration was highest in the seed kernel, providing an excellent source of this sterol known to have beneficial effects on human health. Peanut hearts contained the highest concentration of sterols by mass, potentially providing protection and resources for the developing seedling. The amount of α-tocopherol increases in peanut hearts during the maturation process, providing protection from temperature stress, as well as stability required for seedling vigor. These results suggest that phytosterols may play a significant role in the performance of seeds, and provide a possible explanation for the poor germination efficiency of immature seeds.

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CONTEXT: Community-level data are necessary to inform community health assessments and to plan for appropriate interventions. However, data derived from public health surveys may be limited or unavailable in rural locations. OBJECTIVE: We compared 2 sources of data for community health assessment in rural Colorado, electronic health records (EHRs) and routine public health surveys. DESIGN: Comparison of cross-sectional measures of childhood/youth obesity prevalence and data quality. SETTING: Two rural Colorado counties, La Plata and Prowers. PARTICIPANTS: The EHR cohort comprised patients 2 to 19 years of age who underwent a visit with the largest health care provider in each county. These data included sex, age, weight, height, race, ethnicity, and insurance status. Public health survey data were obtained from 2 surveys, the Colorado Child Health Survey (2-14 years of age) and the Healthy Kids Colorado Survey (15-19 years of age) and included caregiver and self-reported height and weight estimates. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We calculated body mass index percentile for each patient and survey respondent and determined overweight/obesity prevalence by county. We evaluated data source quality indicators according to a rubric developed for this analysis. RESULTS: The EHR sample captured approximately 35% (n = 3965) and 70% (n = 2219) of all children living in La Plata and Prowers Counties, respectively. The EHR prevalence estimates of overweight/obesity were greater in precision than survey data in both counties among children 2 to 14 years of age. In addition, the EHR data were more timely and geographically representative than survey data and provided directly measured height and weight. Conversely, survey data were easier to access and more demographically representative of the overall population. CONCLUSIONS: Electronic health records describing the prevalence of obesity among children/youth living in rural Colorado may complement public health survey data for community health assessment and health improvement planning.

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PURPOSE: In order for communities to make health-related, data-driven decisions concerning resource allocation, needed services, and intervention priorities, they need an accurate picture of the health status of residents. While state and national health surveillance systems exist to help local communities make data-driven health decisions, rural communities face unique challenges including: (1) limited county-level data; (2) underrepresented segments of the population; and (3) a lack of survey items to address local health concerns. The purpose of this study was to take a community-engaged approach to collecting population-based health status data in a rural area in an effort to address some of these unique challenges. METHODS: Using a community-based participatory research (CBPR) approach, over 1,500 residents from 6 rural and frontier counties were randomly selected with a stratified, multistage cluster study design. Surveys were primarily completed over the phone. FINDINGS: Response rates by county ranged from 59% to 80% (overall = 66%). Males and younger adults (18-24 year olds) were underrepresented in the sample, but Hispanics, low-income residents, and cell phone-only users were adequately represented. Prevalence rates for chronic disease and health behavior varied by county. CONCLUSIONS: The implications of this project are that engaging stakeholders in community surveillance efforts increases the quality, relevance and utility of the information collected and can help reach otherwise difficult-to-reach populations. This can result in a more accurate picture of the health status of residents, which can lead to making health-related, data-driven decisions concerning resource allocation, needed services, and intervention priorities.

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BACKGROUND: Chronic diseases, including coronary heart disease (CHD), have been associated with ingestion of drinking water with high levels of inorganic arsenic (> 1,000 µg/L). However, associations have been inconclusive in populations with lower levels (< 100 µg/L) of inorganic arsenic exposure. OBJECTIVES: We conducted a case-cohort study based on individual estimates of lifetime arsenic exposure to examine the relationship between chronic low-level arsenic exposure and risk of CHD. METHODS: This study included 555 participants with 96 CHD events diagnosed between 1984 and 1998 for which individual lifetime arsenic exposure estimates were determined using data from structured interviews and secondary data sources to determine lifetime residence, which was linked to a geospatial model of arsenic concentrations in drinking water. These lifetime arsenic exposure estimates were correlated with historically collected urinary arsenic concentrations. A Cox proportional-hazards model with time-dependent CHD risk factors was used to assess the association between time-weighted average (TWA) lifetime exposure to low-level inorganic arsenic in drinking water and incident CHD. RESULTS: We estimated a positive association between low-level inorganic arsenic exposure and CHD risk [hazard ratio (HR): = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.78] per 15 µg/L while adjusting for age, sex, first-degree family history of CHD, and serum low-density lipoprotein levels. The risk of CHD increased monotonically with increasing TWAs for inorganic arsenic exposure in water relative to < 20 µg/L (HR = 1.2, 95% CI: 0.6, 2.2 for 20-30 µg/L; HR = 2.2; 95% CI: 1.2, 4.0 for 30-45 µg/L; and HR = 3, 95% CI: 1.1, 9.1 for 45-88 µg/L). CONCLUSIONS: Lifetime exposure to low-level inorganic arsenic in drinking water was associated with increased risk for CHD in this population.

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Peanut safety and quality were evaluated for different roasting technologies. Shelled raw peanuts were roasted using an oven at 163 to 204 °C, microwave, or oven and microwave combinations. The lethal effect of these treatments was investigated on peanuts inoculated with the Salmonella surrogate, Enterococcus faecium and stored at room temperature for 1 h, 24 h, or 7 d before roasting. Roasted peanut color, odor activity values (OAVs), descriptive sensory panel analysis, free fatty acid, and peroxide values were determined. Color and OAVs were also analyzed on 2 commercial peanut butters. OAVs were calculated using volatile levels quantified with selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry and known odor thresholds. All treatments resulted in a minimum of 3 log reduction of inoculated bacterial population. Resistance to the process was not influenced by storage of inoculated peanuts prior to treatment. Roasting by different methods produced equivalent, commercially ideal L* color. Based on the OAVs, treatments had similar volatiles important to flavor compared to the commercial samples. Descriptive sensory analysis showed no significant difference between the roasting treatments for most of the sensory attributes. Lipid oxidation was not significantly different between the roasting methods, displaying no evidence that roasting time or temperature affected lipid oxidation, when ideal color was produced. These results suggest that oven, microwave, or combination roasting should be sufficient to mitigate the threat of Salmonella contamination and produce similar color, OAVs, sensory attributes, and lipid oxidation results.

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Consumption of inorganic arsenic in drinking water at high levels has been associated with chronic diseases. Risk is less clear at lower levels of arsenic, in part due to difficulties in estimating exposure. Herein we characterize spatial and temporal variability of arsenic concentrations and develop models for predicting aquifer arsenic concentrations in the San Luis Valley, Colorado, an area of moderately elevated arsenic in groundwater. This study included historical water samples with total arsenic concentrations from 595 unique well locations. A longitudinal analysis established temporal stability in arsenic levels in individual wells. The mean arsenic levels for a random sample of 535 wells were incorporated into five kriging models to predict groundwater arsenic concentrations at any point in time. A separate validation dataset (n = 60 wells) was used to identify the model with strongest predictability. Findings indicate that arsenic concentrations are temporally stable (r = 0.88; 95 % CI 0.83-0.92 for samples collected from the same well 15-25 years apart) and the spatial model created using ordinary kriging best predicted arsenic concentrations (ρ = 0.72 between predicted and observed validation data). These findings illustrate the value of geostatistical modeling of arsenic and suggest the San Luis Valley is a good region for conducting epidemiologic studies of groundwater metals because of the ability to accurately predict variation in groundwater arsenic concentrations.

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INTRODUCTION: The federally mandated Local Wellness Policy (LWP) was intended to promote student health in schools. This study assesses the 5-year effects of the LWP on the health practices of rural elementary schools in Colorado. METHODS: One year before and 5 years after the LWP mandate, a survey was administered to a random sample of principals, physical education (PE) teachers, and food-service managers in 45 rural, low-income elementary schools in Colorado. Response rates were 71% in 2005 and 89% in 2011. RESULTS: Minutes for PE and recess did not increase, nor did offerings of fresh fruits and vegetables. More schools adopted policies prohibiting teachers from taking recess away as punishment (9.7% in 2005 vs 38.5% in 2011, P = .02) or for making up missed instructional time, class work, or tests in other subjects (3.2% in 2005 vs 28.2% in 2011, P = .03). More schools scheduled recess before lunch (22.6% in 2005 vs 46.2% in 2011, P = .04) and developed policies for vending machines (42.9% in 2005 vs 85.7% in 2011, P = .01) and parties (21.4% in 2005 vs 57.9% in 2011, P = .004). CONCLUSION: Changes in school practices are modest, and arguably the important school practices such as increased PE and recess time and increased offerings of fruits and vegetables in the lunch line have not changed in the 5 years since the mandate went into effect. Further investigation is needed to identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes as well as financial and physical resources required for school administrators to make changes in school practices.

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OBJECTIVE: To examine the long-term effects of the Integrated Nutrition and Physical Activity Program (INPAP), a school-based nutrition education program. DESIGN: Quasi-experimental design comparing intervention and comparison cohorts at 3-6 years after delivery of the INPAP intervention on nutrition- and physical activity-related outcomes. SETTING: This study was conducted in 1 school district in a low-income rural county of ∼15,000 residents in south-central Colorado. PARTICIPANTS: In second grade, intervention and comparison cohorts included 173 (fall 2000) and 190 (fall 1999) students, respectively. Approximately 60% of these students completed assessments in eighth grade. INTERVENTIONS: INPAP is an experiential school-based nutrition education program, grounded in social cognitive theory and Piaget's cognitive development theory and adapted for use in a rural setting. OUTCOMES: Nutrition and physical activity knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes and behaviors, body mass index. ANALYSIS: Wilcoxon signed rank test, chi-square test for proportions, and t test for means. RESULTS: Long-term effects were observed in nutrition-related knowledge and attitudes but not self-efficacy or behavior change. The effects that did occur were attenuated over time. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: This study found that INPAP implemented in elementary school had limited lasting effects by the end of middle school, a time when students have increased autonomy to make food choices.

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BACKGROUND: Consumption of drinking water with high levels of inorganic arsenic (over 500 µg/L) has been associated with type II diabetes mellitus (DM), but previous studies have been inconclusive about risks at lower levels (<100 µg/L). We present a case-cohort study based on individual estimates of lifetime arsenic exposure to examine the relationship between chronic low-level arsenic exposure and risk of DM. METHODS: This case-cohort study included 141 cases of DM diagnosed between 1984 and 1998 as part of the prospective San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. A comparison sub-cohort of 488 participants was randomly sampled from 936 eligible participants who were disease free at baseline. Individual lifetime arsenic exposure estimates were determined using a methodology that incorporates the use of a structured interview to determine lifetime residence and employment history, geospatial modeling of arsenic concentrations in drinking water, and urine arsenic concentrations. A Cox proportional hazards model with known DM risk factors as time-dependent covariates was used to assess the association between lifetime exposure to inorganic arsenic in drinking water and incident DM. RESULTS: Our findings show a significant association between inorganic arsenic exposure and DM risk (hazard ratio [HR]=1.27, 95%=1.01, 1.59 per 15 µg/L) while adjusting for ethnicity and time varying covariates age, body mass index and physical activity level. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to low-level inorganic arsenic in drinking water is associated with increased risk for type II DM in this population based on a comprehensive lifetime exposure assessment.

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Consumption of inorganic arsenic in drinking water at high levels has been associated with chronic diseases. Research groups have estimated historic exposure using databases and models of arsenic in drinking water supplies, along with participant residential histories. Urinary arsenic species are an established biomarker of recent exposure; we compare arsenic concentrations in historically collected urine samples with predicted estimates of arsenic exposure. Using a cohort of 462 subjects with at least one urine sample collected from 1984-1992 and an arsenic exposure estimate through drinking water at the time of the urine sample, individual exposure estimates were compared with speciated urine arsenic (UAs) concentrations using correlation and multiple regression analyses. Urine inorganic arsenic (UIAs) concentrations (trivalent arsenic, pentavalent arsenic, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsonic acid) were best predicted by residential water arsenic concentrations (R(2)=0.3688), compared with metrics including water consumption (R(2)=0.2038) or water concentrations at employment locations (R(2)=0.2331). UIAs concentrations showed similar correlation when stratified by whether the arsenic concentration was predicted or measured. Residential water arsenic concentrations, independent of water intake or water concentrations at places of employment, best explain the variability in UIAs concentrations, suggesting historical reconstruction of arsenic exposure that accounts for space-time variability and water concentrations may serve as a proxy for exposure.

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BACKGROUND: School environment and policy changes have increased healthy eating and physical activity; however, there has been modest success in translating research findings to practice. The School Environment Project tested whether an adapted version of Intervention Mapping (AIM) resulted in school change. METHODS: Using a pair randomized design, 10 rural elementary schools were assigned to AIM or the School Health Index (SHI). Baseline measures were collected fall 2005, AIM was conducted 2005-2006, and follow-up measures were collected fall 2006 and 2007. Outcome measures included number and type of effective environment and policy changes implemented; process measures included the extent to which 11 implementation steps were used. RESULTS: AIM schools made an average of 4.4 effective changes per school with 90% still in place a year later. SHI schools made an average of 0.6 effective changes with 66% in place a year later. Implementation steps distinguishing AIM from SHI included use of external, trained facilitators; principal involvement; explicitly stating the student behavior goals; identifying effective environment and policy changes; prioritizing potential changes based on importance and feasibility; and developing an action plan. CONCLUSION: The AIM process led to environment and policy changes known to increase healthy eating and physical activity.

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OBJECTIVE: Physical activity is a cornerstone of treatment for diabetes, yet people with diabetes perform less moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) than people without diabetes. In contrast, whether differences in walking activity exist has been understudied. Diabetes-specific barriers to physical activity are one possible explanation for lower MVPA in diabetes. We hypothesized that people with diabetes would perform less walking and combined MVPA and would be less likely to anticipate increasing physical activity if barriers were theoretically absent, compared with people without diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We surveyed 1,848 randomly selected rural Colorado adult residents by telephone from 2002 to 2004. Respondents reported weekly walking and MVPA duration and their likelihood of increasing physical activity if each of seven barriers was theoretically absent. RESULTS: People with diabetes (n = 129) had lower odds of walking and MVPA than people without diabetes (walking: adjusted odds ratio 0.62 [95% CI 0.40-0.95]; MVPA: adjusted odds ratio 0.60 [0.36-0.99]; ≥10 vs. <10 min/week, adjusted for age, sex, BMI, and ethnicity). Respondents with diabetes reported fear of injury as a barrier to physical activity more often than respondents without diabetes (56 vs. 39%; P = 0.0002), although this relationship was attenuated after adjusting for age and BMI (adjusted odds ratio 1.36 [0.93-1.99]). CONCLUSIONS: Although walking is a preferred form of activity in diabetes, people with diabetes walk less than people without diabetes. Reducing fear of injury may potentially increase physical activity for people with diabetes, particularly in older and more overweight individuals.

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OBJECTIVES: We considered the relationship between an urban adult population's fruit and vegetable consumption and several selected social and psychological processes, beneficial aesthetic experiences, and garden participation. METHODS: We conducted a population-based survey representing 436 residents across 58 block groups in Denver, Colorado, from 2006 to 2007. We used multilevel statistical models to evaluate the survey data. RESULTS: Neighborhood aesthetics, social involvement, and community garden participation were significantly associated with fruit and vegetable intake. Community gardeners consumed fruits and vegetables 5.7 times per day, compared with home gardeners (4.6 times per day) and nongardeners (3.9 times per day). Moreover, 56% of community gardeners met national recommendations to consume fruits and vegetables at least 5 times per day, compared with 37% of home gardeners and 25% of nongardeners. CONCLUSIONS: Our study results shed light on neighborhood processes that affect food-related behaviors and provides insights about the potential of community gardens to affect these behaviors. The qualities intrinsic to community gardens make them a unique intervention that can narrow the divide between people and the places where food is grown and increase local opportunities to eat better.

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INTRODUCTION: Based on a socioecological model, the present study examined multilevel barriers and facilitators related to physical activity engagement during pregnancy in women of low socioeconomic status. METHODS: Individual and paired interviews were conducted with 25 pregnant women (aged 18-46 years, 17-40 weeks' gestation) to ask about motivational factors and to compare differences in activity level and parity. Atlas/Ti software was used to code verbatim interview transcripts by organizing codes into categories that reflect symbolic domains of meaning, relational patterns, and overarching themes. RESULTS: Perceived barriers and motivating factors differed between exercisers and nonexercisers at intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental levels. DISCUSSION: Future interventions should take into account key motivating multilevel factors and barriers to tailor more meaningful advice for pregnant women.

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To increase opportunities for healthy eating and physical activity, US school districts participating in the National School Lunch Program were required to create a Local Wellness Policy (LWP) by June 2006. The What's Working project described the initial influence of this mandate on nutrition environments and policies. In 2005 and 2007 (before and after the mandate went into effect), a survey about school features related to nutrition and physical activity was sent to a random sample of 45 low-income, rural elementary foodservice managers and principals. Schools averaged 204 students, 27% Hispanic. Districts' LWPs were coded for strength and comprehensiveness. In addition, key informant interviews were conducted with foodservice managers almost 2 years after the LWP went into effect. Three improvements were observed: increases in the percent of schools with policies stipulating predominantly healthy items be offered in classroom parties (21.4% in 2005 vs 48.7% in 2007), daily fresh fruit offerings in the lunchroom (0.80 choices in 2005 vs 1.15 choices in 2007), and the percent of schools using skinless poultry (27% in 2005 vs 59% in 2007). LWPs were weakly worded and rarely addressed energy content. Nutrition guideline elements most commonly addressed included vending machines, school stores, and à la carte food offerings. Seveny-three percent of foodservice managers were familiar with their district's LWP but did not perceive it changed lunchroom practices. Although LWPs offer a framework to support opportunities for healthy eating, few evidence-based practices were implemented as a direct result of the mandate. Schools need more information about evidence-based practices, as well as technical and financial assistance for implementation.

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Community gardens are viewed as a potentially useful environmental change strategy to promote active and healthy lifestyles but the scientific evidence base for gardens is limited. As a step towards understanding whether gardens are a viable health promotion strategy for local communities, we set out to examine the social processes that might explain the connection between gardens, garden participation and health. We analyzed data from semi-structured interviews with community gardeners in Denver. The analysis examined social processes described by community gardeners and how those social processes were cultivated by or supportive of activities in community gardens. After presenting results describing these social processes and the activities supporting them, we discuss the potential for the place-based social processes found in community gardens to support collective efficacy, a powerful mechanism for enhancing the role of gardens in promoting health.

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The What's Working project described the initial impact of the United States' federally mandated Local Wellness Policy in rural, low-income elementary schools located in Colorado. Before and after the Local Wellness Policy mandate went into effect, a survey about school features related to nutrition and physical activity was sent to a random sample of 45 rural elementary schools (i.e., schools located outside of urban areas), in which at least 40% of students qualified for free or reduced-cost lunch. Overall, opportunities for physical activity did not change after the policy went into effect: although time in physical education increased by 14 min per week (P=0.10), time for recess decreased by roughly 19 min per week (P=0.10). Policies supporting student participation in physical education and recess (an unstructured time during school hours when students are allowed to play outside) did not change. The researchers coded Local Wellness Policies and found them to have weak wording that produced minimal impact. Content analysis of key informant interviews suggested several barriers to the impact of the Local Wellness Policies: (1) competing pressures facing school districts, (2) lack of resources devoted to the Local Wellness Policy, (3) principals' lack of knowledge about the policy, and (4) lack of accountability mechanisms to ensure policy implementation. Financial resources and more effective communication about Local Wellness Policies among school districts and principals are needed to elevate the importance of and increase opportunities for physical activity in rural, low-income Colorado elementary schools.

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