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Resumen La infección por el virus de la hepatitis C (VHC) se distribuye en todo el mundo, frecuentemente se convierte en hepatitis crónica, cirrosis y hepatocarcinoma. El genoma del VHC es una molécula de ARN monocatenario, de polaridad positiva, de aproximadamente 9.6 kb de longitud. Esta revisión resume el conocimiento actual y los avances recientes en la investigación de la biología molecular del VHC.

Abstract Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is distributed worldwide, often becomes in chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The HCV genome is a single-stranded RNA molecule of positive polarity approximately 9.6 kb in length. This review summarizes the current knowledge of recent advances in the investigation of the molecular biology of HCV.

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In the present work, immunogenicity of recombinant in vitro assembled hepatitis C virus core particles, HCcAg.120-VLPs, either alone or in combination with different adjuvants was evaluated in BALB/c mice. HCcAg.120-VLPs induced high titers of anti-HCcAg.120 antibodies and virus-specific cellular immune responses. Particularly, HCcAg.120-VLPs induced specific delayed type hypersensitivity, and generated a predominant T helper 1 cytokine pro file in immunized mice. In addition, HCcAg.120-VLPs prime splenocytes proliferate in vitro against different HCcAg.120-specific peptides, depending on either the immunization route or the adjuvant used. Remarkably, immunization with HCcAg.120-VLPs/Montanide ISA888 formulation resulted in a significant control of vaccinia virus titer in mice after challenge with a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing HCV core protein, vvCore. Animals immunized with this formulation had a marked increase in the number of IFN-gamma producing spleen cells, after stimulation with P815 cells infected with vvCore. These results suggest the use of recombinant HCV core particles as components of therapeutic or preventive vaccine candidates against HCV.

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In the present work, immunogenicity of recombinant in vitro assembled hepatitis C virus core particles, HCcAg.120-VLPs, either alone or in combination with different adjuvants was evaluated in BALB/c mice. HCcAg.120-VLPs induced high titers of anti-HCcAg.120 antibodies and virus-specific cellular immune responses. Particularly, HCcAg.120-VLPs induced specific delayed type hypersensitivity, and generated a predominant T helper 1 cytokine pro file in immunized mice. In addition, HCcAg.120-VLPs prime splenocytes proliferate in vitro against different HCcAg.120-specific peptides, depending on either the immunization route or the adjuvant used. Remarkably, immunization with HCcAg.120-VLPs/Montanide ISA888 formulation resulted in a significant control of vaccinia virus titer in mice after challenge with a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing HCV core protein, vvCore. Animals immunized with this formulation had a marked increase in the number of IFN-γ producing spleen cells, after stimulation with P815 cells infected with vvCore. These results suggest the use of recombinant HCV core particles as components of therapeutic or preventive vaccine candidates against HCV.

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Production of immunogenic hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope proteins will assist in the future development of preventive or therapeutics applications. Only properly folded monomeric E2 protein is able to bind a putative cellular co-receptor CD81, but this interaction may modulate cell immune function. Recombinant E2 proteins, similar to the native form, but lacking undesirable immunoregulatory features, might be promising components of vaccine candidates against HCV. To obtain E2 suitable for structural as well as functional studies, a recombinant E2 variant (E2680) was produced in Pichia pastoris cells. E2680, comprising amino acids 384 to 680 of the HCV polyprotein, was secreted into the culture supernatant in the N-glycosilated form and was mainly composed of disulfide-linked multimers. Both monomeric and oligomeric forms of E2680 were recognized by conformational-sensitive MAb H53. In addition, antibodies in sera from 70% of HCVpositive patients were reactive against E2680. By immunizing E2680 in BALB/c mice, both a specific cellular immune response and anti-E2680 IgG antibody titers of 1:200,000 were induced. Our data suggest that recombinant E2680 could be useful to successfully induce strong anti-HCV immunity.

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Development of heterologous systems to produce useful HCV vaccine candidates is an important part of HCV research. In this study different HCV structural region variants were designed to express the first 120 aa, 176 aa, 339 aa, and 650 aa of HCV polyprotein, and aa 384 to 521, or aa 384-605 or aa 384-746 of HCV E2 protein fused to the leader sequence of sucrose invertase 2 allowing the secretion of recombinant E2 proteins. Low expression levels were observed for HCV core protein (HCcAg) variants expressing the first 120 aa and 176 aa (HCcAg.120 and HCcAg.176, respectively). Higher expression levels were observed when HCcAg was expressed as a polypeptide with either E1 or E1 and E2 proteins. In addition, HCcAg was processed to produce two antigenic bands with 21 and 23kDa (P21 and P23, respectively) when expressed as a polypeptide with HCV E1 and E2 proteins. Results also suggest E1 processing in the context of HCcAg.E1.E2 polyprotein. On the other hand, E2.521, E2.605, and E2.680 were efficiently excreted to the culture medium. However, the entire E2.746 variant predominantly localized in the insoluble fraction of ruptured cells. Results suggest that the hydrophobic C-terminal E2 region from aa 681 to 746 is critical for intracellular retention of recombinant E2.746 protein in Pichia pastoris cells. Endo H or PNGase F treatment suggests that E2.746 was modified with high-mannose type oligosaccharides in P. pastoris. These data justify the usefulness of P. pastoris expression system to express HCV structural viral proteins which may be useful targets for HCV vaccine candidates.

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Little is known about the assembly pathway or structure of the hepatitis C virus (HCV). In this work a truncated HCcAg variant covering the first 120 aa (HCcAg.120) with a 32 aa N-terminal fusion peptide (6x Histag-Xpress epitope) was purified as a monomer under strong denaturing conditions. In addition, minor HCcAg.120 peaks exhibiting little different molecular mass by SDS-PAGE which possibly represents alternative forms harboring the N-termini of HCcAg.120 were detected. Analysis using gel filtration chromatography showed that HCcAg.120 assembled into high molecular weight structures in vitro in the absence of structured nucleic acids. The negative-stain electron microscopy analysis revealed that these structures correspond with spherical VLPs of uniform morphology and size distribution. The diameters of these particles ranged from 20 to 43nm with an average diameter of approximately 30 nm and were specifically immunolabelled with a mouse monoclonal antibody against the residues 5-35 of HCcAg. Results presented in this work showed that HCcAg.120 assembled in vitro into VLPs in the absence of structured nucleic acids with similar morphology and size distribution to those found in sera and hepatocytes from HCV-infected patients. Therefore, these VLPs would be important to elucidate the mechanisms behind the ability of HCcAg to assemble into a nucleocapsid structure.

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Understanding the mechanism of hepatitis C virus (HCV) pathogenesis is an important part of HCV research. Recent experimental evidence suggests that the HCV core protein (HCcAg) has numerous functional activities. These properties suggest that HCcAg, in concert with cellular factors, may contribute to pathogenesis during persistent HCV infection. HCV is capable of infecting cells other than hepatocytes. Although the extrahepatic cellular tropism of HCV may play a role in the pathophysiology of this infection, the precise biological significance of the presence of HCV components in different liver cell types presently remains to be established. In this study, HCcAg was detected in nonparenchymal liver cells of six patients out of eight positive for serum HCV RNA. Immunostaining with anti-HCcAg mAbs revealed the presence of this protein in different liver cell types such as lymphocytes, Kupffer, polymorphonuclear, pit, endothelial, stellate, and fibroblast-like cells. Interestingly, HCcAg was immunolabeled not only in the cytoplasm but also in the nucleus of these cells. Remarkably, HCcAg co-localized with large lipid droplets present in stellate cells and with collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix. Moreover, HCcAg was immunolabeled in bile canaliculus suggesting the involvement of the biliary system in the pathobiology of HCV. Data suggest that nonparenchymal liver cells may constitute a reservoir for HCV replication. Besides, HCcAg may contribute to modulate immune function and fibrosis in the liver as well as steatosis.

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Different variants of hepatitis C virus core protein (HCcAg) have proved to self-assemble in vitro into virus-like particles (VLPs). However, difficulties in obtaining purified mature HCcAg have limited these studies. In this study, a high degree of monomeric HCcAg purification was accomplished using chromatographic procedures under denaturing conditions. Size exclusion chromatography and sucrose density gradient centrifugation of renatured HCcAg (in the absence of structured RNA) under reducing conditions suggested that it assembled into empty capsids. The electron microscopy analysis of renatured HCcAg showed the presence of spherical VLPs with irregular shapes and an average diameter of 35nm. Data indicated that HCcAg monomers assembled in vitro into VLPs in the absence of structured RNA, suggesting that recombinant HCcAg used in this work contains all the information necessary for the assembly process. However, they also suggest that some cellular factors might be required for the proper in vitro assembly of capsids.

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Little is known about the in vivo assembly pathway or structure of the hepatitis C virus nucleocapsid. In this work the intermediates of HCcAg multimerization in Pichia pastoris cells and the nucleic acid binding properties of structured nucleocapsid-like particles (NLPs) were studied. Extensive cross-linking was observed for HCcAg after glutaraldehyde treatment. Data suggest that HCcAg exists in dimeric forms probably representing P21-P21, P21-P23, and P23-P23 dimers. In addition, the presence of HCcAg species that might represent trimers and multimers was observed. After sucrose equilibrium density gradient purification and nuclease digestion, NLPs were shown to contain both RNA and DNA molecules. Finally, the analysis by electron microscopy indicated that native NLPs were resistant to nuclease treatment. These results indicated that HCcAg assembles through dimers, trimers, and multimers' intermediates into capsids in P. pastoris cells. Assembly of NLPs in its natural environment might confer stability to these particles by adopting a compact structure.

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The hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein-encoding sequence (HCcAg) is the most conserved gene in HCV genome and therefore may be useful to study broadly reacting T-cell epitopes. In this study BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were immunized with a DNA based vaccine expressing the first 176 aa of HCcAg (pIDKCo). After i.m or i.p injection of pIDKCo in BALB/c mice, a detectable INF-gamma secreting response to the relevant class I-binding peptide DLMGYIPLVGA (P1) (aa 132-142) was detected suggesting the induction of HCcAg specific CD8(+) T-cell effectors. CD8(+) T-cell responses were also monitored in vivo by T-cell-mediated DTH reactions after subcutaneous injection of class I-binding viral peptide P1. pIDKCo induced a strong P1-specific DTH response in both i.m and i.p immunized mice. To evaluate the T-cell response induced by pIDKCo in C57BL/6 mice, an HCcAg epitope was predicted based upon it containing the H-2K(b) binding motif XXXXF/YXXL (DLMGYIPL (P2)). pIDKCo induced a strong P2-specific DTH response with similar kinetics of swelling response to that observed in BALB/c mice. Previously, it had been demonstrated that only activated and protective CD8(+) effector T cells could mediate a specific DTH in footpads of virally infected mice after local injection of viral class I-binding peptides. Hence, pIDKCo could prime a strong HCcAg-specific T-cell response in mice with the potential capacity to exert their specific effector functions in peripheral tissues.

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The relationship between HCV core protein (HCcAg) processing and the structural composition and morphogenesis of nucleocapsid-like particles (NLPs) produced in Pichia pastoris cells was studied. At early stages of heterologous expression, data suggest that HCcAg (in the P21 form) was transported soon after its synthesis in the cytoplasm into the nucleus. HCcAg assembly into nucleocapsid-like particles with 20-30 nm in diameter took place primary in the cell nucleus. However, at later stages, when P21 and P23 forms were co-detected, data suggest that new assembly of nucleocapsid particles containing P21 possibly occurs at ER membranes and in the cytoplasm. This is the first report showing that structured HCV NLPs composed of P21 core protein assemble primary in the nucleus of P. pastoris yeast.

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Little is known about the life cycle of hepatitis C virus. Determination of the subcellular localization of HCV proteins may contribute to our understanding of the in vivo functions of the viral proteins. HCV core protein regulates multiple functions in host cells and it has been detected both in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus using different expression systems. In this study, nucleocapsid-like particles were observed in the nucleus of hepatocytes from a chronically HCV-infected patient. They were similar in size and shape to those of HCV core-like particles purified from recombinant Pichia pastoris cells. In addition the HCV core protein was detected not only in the cytoplasm but also in the nucleus and nucleolus of hepatocytes by immunoelectron microscopy. This is the first report showing nuclear localization of HCV core protein and nucleocapsid-like particles in hepatocytes during in vivo HCV infection.

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Mucosal vaccination is currently arousing a great deal of interest, since mucosally induced immunity is able to protect not only against microorganisms using mucosa as a door of entry, but also against those parenterally transmitted. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is considered a worldwide health problem and a current vaccine is not available. In the present work, immunogenicity of particulate HCcAg was evaluated, administered alone and also in formulations with the main protective antigen of HBV, the surface antigen (HBsAg), both by mucosal (i.n.) and parenteral (i.m) routes. HCcAg was able to induce strong immune responses after nasal as well as parenteral administration, developing a strong Th1-like antibody response in serum. Preliminary data also suggested the ability of HCcAg to efficiently enhance and modulate the host immune response against HBsAg. These results support the use of the particulate HCcAg in the rational design of candidates for HCV therapeutic or preventive vaccine strategies or inclusively in the development of future combined vaccines.

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In this study, 13 samples of liver biopsies from patients with chronic hepatitis C were studied by transmission electron microscopy (EM) and immunoelectron microscopy (IEM). The 13 biopsies showed ultrastructural cell damage typical of acute viral hepatitis. In four of the 13 liver biopsies enveloped virus-like particles (VLPs) inside cytoplasmic vesicles and in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes were observed. We also detected the presence of unenveloped VLPs mainly in the cytoplasm and in the endoplasmic reticulum. IEM using anti-core, E1 and E2 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) confirmed the specific localization of these proteins, in vivo, inside cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum. Thus, this work provided evidence for hepatocellular injury related to HCV infection. It also suggested the presence of HCV-related replicating structures in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes and raised the possibility of hepatitis C virion morphogenesis in intracellular vesicles.

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Por medio de la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (RPC), se obtuvo una sonda para el gen que codifica la subunidad B de la toxina colérica (CTxB) que portaba una cepa de referencia de Vibrio cholerae 01. La comprobación del producto amplificado se realizó por la técnica de hibridación en colonias. El producto amplificado hibridó con el gen que codifica la subunidad B de la toxina colérica aislada de Perú y Ecuador, representante de la presente epidemia en América Latina y no lo hizo con las cepas filogenéticamente relacionadas(AU)

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Por medio de la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (RPC), se obtuvo una sonda para el gen que codifica la subunidad B de la toxina colérica (CTxB) que portaba una cepa de referencia de Vibrio cholerae 01. La comprobación del producto amplificado se realizó por la técnica de hibridación en colonias. El producto amplificado hibridó con el gen que codifica para la subunidad B de la toxina colérica aislada de Perú y Ecuador, representante de la presente epidemia en América Latina y no lo hizo con las cepas filogenéticamente relacionadas.

By means of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) it was obtained a probe for the gen that codifies the subunit B of cholerae toxin (CTxB), which carried a Vibrio cholerae 01 reference strain. The checking of the amplified product was performed by using the hybridization techniques in colonies. This product hybridized with the gen that codifies for the subunit B of cholerae toxin isolated from Peru and Ecuador, representing the present epidemics in Latin America, but it did not so with the phylogenetically related strains.