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In Nicaragua, there are ideal environmental conditions for leptospirosis. The objective of this investigation was to detect pathogenic and saprophytic leptospires in water and soil samples from leptospirosis-endemic areas in Nicaragua. Seventy-eight water and 42 soil samples were collected from houses and rivers close to confirmed human cases. Leptospira spp was isolated in Ellinghausen-McCullough-Johnson-Harris (EMJH) culture medium with 5-fluororacil and positive samples were analyzed through PCR for the LipL32 gene, specific for pathogenic leptospires (P1 clade). There were 73 positive cultures from 120 samples, however only six of these (5% of all collected samples) were confirmed to be pathogenic, based on the presence of the LipL32 gene (P1 clade). Of these six pathogenic isolates, four were from Leon and two from Chinandega. Four pathogenic isolates were obtained from water and two from soil. This study proved the contamination of water and soil with pathogenic leptospires, which represents a potential risk for public health.

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Leptospirosis is one of the most extended zoonosis worldwide and humans become infected most commonly through contact with the urine of carrier animals, either directly or via contaminated water or soil. The aim in this study was to analyse the epidemiological behaviour of Leptospira spp., from domestic animals around the sites of human leptospirosis cases in Nicaragua, from 2007 through 2013. We report the results of a cross-sectional epidemiological study with a non-probability sampling of blood (n=3050) and urine (n=299) from Domestic Animals (DA) around the sites of human leptospirosis cases in Nicaragua. We analysed data obtained through Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT), in-vitro culture, real time PCR and sequencing of lfb1 locus. Frequencies of 30.31% (95% CI: 28.66-31.95) and 15.38% (95% CI: 11.12-19.64) were obtained from serological test and from in-vitro culture, respectively. Although similar frequencies from serology test (P≥0.05) were found in DA species, in-vitro culture frequencies were significantly higher from bovine, equine and sheep (P<0.05) in comparison with swine and canine species. Ten serogroups of pathogenic Leptospira spp. were encountered, with the highest presence of Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup 34.65% (95% CI: 29.35-39.94). We identified 7 samples homologous to L. interrogans species Pyrogenes serovar and 3 samples as L. noguchii Louisiana or Panama serovars by analysis of lfb1 sequences. We were able to establish a temporal and spatial correlation from DA and cumulative incidence of human cases. Therefore an effective epidemiological surveillance should be implemented with a specific control program toward DA in order to reduce human leptospirosis incidence.

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Erythromycin is an antimicrobial agent recommended for the control and treatment of diseases caused by gram-positive bacteria. Few studies, however, have determined the metabolic and pharmacokinetic aspects of this antimicrobial agent in fish. The aim of the present study, therefore, was to determine the accumulation and depletion time of erythromycin after administration of medicated feed containing 52 mg kg(-1) body weight day(-1) for 8 days in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Results were analyzed following the European Agency for Evaluation of Medicinal Products guidelines. We measured a withdrawal time of 187°C-day (°C-day=water temperature×days), lower than the value (500°C-day) recommended by Council Directive 2004/28/EC for veterinary medicinal products. Our results provide data to establish therapeutic regimens for the use of erythromycin in aquaculture.

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Aeromonas salmonicida is the etiological agent of furunculosis in salmonid fish. This pathogen is important from an epizootic perspective because fish surviving an outbreak can remain lifelong asymptomatic carriers, serving as reservoirs of infection. As a result, the early detection and the control of infection are essential to prevent the spread of new furunculosis outbreaks. We have thus analyzed the effect of probiotic administration on the incidence of A. salmonicida in brown trout (Salmo trutta), that were subjected to temperature stress. Treatment with probiotic strains (Lactococcus lactis CLFP 100 and Leuconostoc mesenteroides CLFP 196) resulted in a higher survival rate after challenge, activation of phagocytic cells in the head kidney, and a lower rate of pathogen proliferation in the intestine as determined by real-time PCR.

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Adhesion to host tissue represents a first crucial step in most bacterial infections. Both specific adhesion-ligand as well as hydrophobic interactions may be involved. The adhesion of Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida, Lactococcus garvieae, and Yersinia ruckeri strains to fish tissue cells was assessed. To determine whether the observed bacterial adhesion to fish tissue cells was caused by non-specific interactions, adhesion to bovine serum albumin (BSA) and polystyrene was also tested. Our results demonstrated that non-specific adhesion such as hydrophobic interactions are only partially involved in the binding process since adhesion to BSA was low, and there was no correlation between adhesion to polystyrene and adhesion to fish tissue cells.

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Bacterial Kidney Disease of salmonid is caused by a slow-growing gram-positive bacterium, Renibacterium salmoninarum. This bacterium lives both extra-cellular and intra-cellular in the host. Serological and molecular diagnostic methods to detect the bacterium major surface protein antigen p57 have been developed. In the present work, a newly developed quantitative Reverse Transcriptase-PCR (RT-QPCR), using self-quenched fluorescent primer (Lux), a nested PCR (NPCR), a commercial ELISA and recently commercially available Immune-chromatographic strip test(IC-Strip) were compared for their ability to detect BKD in kidney tissue samples obtained from experimentally infected fish. ELISA test resulted to be rapid, simple and indicative for the bacterial load. The IC-Strip test had similar characteristics for bacterial detection. Both tests are a good option for rapid and relatively inexpensive screening studies, despite the one and two log decrease in bacterial detection limits compared to NPCR and RT-QPCR, respectively. The use of Lux primers in the newly developed RT-QPCR revealed to be a cost-effective alternative to other fluorescence-based PCR techniques. The option of generating a melting temperature curve with the real time PCR instrument confirmed the specificity of the PCR product. The RT-QPCR technique had the advantage of detecting low numbers of viable bacterial mRNA which implied a higher capacity of detecting chronically infected animals. For instance, some fish in the group infected by cohabitation had very low bacterial load and were only detected by this technique.

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We analysed the effect of probiotic strains on the cellular and humoral immune responses of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and their capacity to prevent furunculosis during a challenge trial. Probiotic strains (Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis CLFP 100, Leuconostoc mesenteroides CLFP 196, and Lactobacillus sakei CLFP 202) were administered orally to fish for 2 weeks at 10(6) CFU g(-1) of feed. In comparison to untreated control fish, the phagocytic activity of head kidney leukocytes and the alternative complement activity in serum were significantly greater in all probiotic groups at the end of the second week. With the exception of the group fed with Lactobacillus sakei, superoxide anion production was also significantly increased in the probiotic groups. Analysis of lysozyme activity did not exhibit any significant difference in the probiotic and control groups. Fifteen days after the start of the probiotic feeding, fish were challenged with Aeromonas salmonicida ssp. salmonicida. The fish supplemented with probiotics exhibited survival rates ranging from 97.8% to 100%, whereas survival was 65.6% in fish not treated with the probiotics. These results demonstrate that probiotic supplementation to fish can reduce the severity of furunculosis, and suggest that this reduction may be associated with enhanced humoral and cellular immune response.

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We studied the safety and efficacy of an inactivated vaccine (Ichtiovac-Lg) against Lactococcus garvieae in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In an initial dose-response experiment to test safety, we injected 50 rainbow trout weighing 30-40 g with a double dose of vaccine (0.2 ml) intraperitoneally. We observed these fish three times a day until day 50 post-vaccination when they were killed to evaluate visceral reactions, adhesions and intraperitoneal absorption. Survival was 100% in both the treatment and control groups and no significant differences were found in percentage of severe adhesions and pigmentation of peritonea and viscera. In a second trial, we injected 50 rainbow trout weighing 30-40 g with 0.1 ml of vaccine and a control group was injected with 0.1 ml of PBS intraperitoneally. On day 29 post-vaccination, both groups were challenged by intraperitoneal injection with 0.1 ml of a virulent heterologous strain of L. garvieae at 3 x 10(6) cfu ml(-1) and fish were observed for a further 21 days. At the end of the experiment, the survivals of the vaccinated fish and control group were 94 and 4%, respectively.

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The present study describes the screening of five lactic acid bacteria (LAB) for use as probiotics based on their competitive adhesion and production of antagonistic substances against some fish pathogens. A reduction of adhesion of all pathogenic strains tested was obtained with three of the LAB strains (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis CLFP100, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris CLFP102 and Lactobacillus curvatus CLFP150). With the exception of fish pathogens Flavobacterium psychrophilum and Renibacterium salmoninarum that were not inhibited by LAB strains, production of antagonistic compounds by all tested LAB was observed against at least one of the indicator strains. Based on mucus adhesion, competitive exclusion, and suppression of fish pathogen growth, the selected LAB strains can be considered for future challenge experiments in fish as a very promising alternative to the use of chemotherapeutic agents.

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We studied the effect of several lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on the humoral response of brown trout (Salmo trutta). LAB groups (Lactococcus (Lc.) lactis ssp. lactis, Lactobacillus (Lb.) sakei and Leuconostoc (Leu.) mesenteroides) were administered orally at 10(6) colony-forming units/g feed to brown trout for 2 weeks, after which fish were switched to an unsupplemented feed. Blood and intestinal samples were taken from the onset of feeding supplemented diets at 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks. During the LAB-feeding period, Lc. lactis ssp. lactis, Lb. sakei and Leu. mesenteroides persisted in the fish intestines, but the number of LAB slowly decreased in the intestines after changing to the unsupplemented diet. Only Lb. lactis ssp. lactis and Leu. mesenteroides were detected at levels above 1 x 10(2) colony-forming units/g at the end of the fourth week. In comparison to untreated control fish, the alternative complement activity in the serum was found to be significantly greater in all LAB groups at the end of the second week. Groups supplemented with Lc. lactis ssp. lactis and Leu. mesenteroides exhibited an elevated level of lysozyme activity at the end of the third week, but the group supplemented with Lb. sakei did not exhibit any significant change in lysozyme activity. Serum immunoglobulin levels were higher compared with the control group, but there was no significant difference between the LAB and control groups.

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In this study a real-time PCR assay using self-quenched primers labelled with a single fluorophore for the detection of Aeromonas salmonicida was developed. Probe specificity was confirmed by amplification of 16 A. salmonicida strain templates and by the lack of a PCR product with 26 non-A. salmonicida strains. With a pure culture of A. salmonicida, the assay was linear over a range of 0.5 pg to 50 ng and was able to detect 16 c.f.u. per reaction. A similar sensitivity was observed in DNA extracted from a mixture of A. salmonicida and fish tissue. Results using artificially inoculated tissues and diseased fish from outbreaks indicated that the assay can provide sensitive species-specific detection and quantification of A. salmonicida in fish tissue.

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The aim of this study was to identify lactic acid bacteria (LAB) using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of variable regions of the 16S rRNA gene. Thirteen LAB strains were isolated from the intestinal microbiota of healthy salmonids. A approximately 500-bp region of the highly conserved 16S rRNA gene was PCR-amplified and following this, a portion of the amplicon (272-bp) including the V1 and V2 variable regions was sequenced. The sequence containing both the V1 and V2 region provided strong evidence for the identification of LAB. The LAB strains were identified as Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Lactobacillus curvatus, Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides. The method described was found to be a very simple, rapid, specific, and low-cost tool for the identification of unknown strains of LAB.

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A method is described for the rapid and sensitive assay of phagocytosis that utilizes radioactively labelled bacteria. With this method, we observed that phagocytosis of heat-inactivated Aeromonas salmonicida by leukocytes isolated from gut of rainbow trout fed with different viable probiotics (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactobacillus sakei, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides) was significantly higher (P<0.05) after 2 weeks of probiotic-feeding than the control group. However, only phagocytosis of live A. salmonicida by the leukocytes isolated from gut of rainbow trout fed with L. lactis subsp. lactis was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the control group.

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Lactococcus garvieae is the etiological agent of Lactococcosis, an emergent disease which affects many fish species and causes important economic losses both in marine and freshwater aquaculture when water temperature increases over 16 degrees C in summer months. Normally, it causes a hyperacute and haemorrhagic septicemia. This paper presents a state of the art review of fish Lactococcosis including aspects such as pathogen characterization, pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis and control measures of the disease in farmed fish.

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The increase of productivity in aquaculture has been accompanied by ecological impacts including emergence of a large variety of pathogens and bacterial resistance. These impacts are in part due to the indiscriminate use of chemotherapeutic agents as a result of management practices in production cycles. This review provides a summary of the use of probiotics for prevention of bacterial diseases in aquaculture, with a critical evaluation of results obtained to date.

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Five Aphanomyces strains were isolated during suspected outbreaks of crayfish disease in Spain and Italy. Genetic and physiological evidence show that the strains isolated from the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii and Pacifastacus leniusculus, do not fit into any previously identified group of Aphanomyces astaci and are not capable of killing crayfish following standardised experimental infection. RAPD-PCR and ITS sequencing analysis show a high degree of similarity between the new isolates, while they are clearly different from the A. astaci reference strains. They do, however, possess some properties, which are commonly associated with parasitic species such as repeated zoospore emergence and the lack of sexual reproduction. The five isolates share some physiological properties i.e. a high growth rate, and germination in response to nutrients and, in contrast to A. astaci, they do not express chitinase constitutively during growth or sporulation. Until their taxonomic status is fully elucidated we suggest that the new isolates be given the tentative species name Aphanomyces repetans.

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