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Older adults must have the ability to walk at variable speeds/distances to meet community demands. This single group pre-post test study's purposes were to examine if actual cadences after 7 weeks of rhythmic auditory stimulation gait training matched target cadences, improved walking distance, duration, velocity, maximum cadence, balance, enjoyment, and/or changed spatial/temporal gait parameters. Fourteen female adults (72.6 ± 4.4 years) participated in 14 sessions, while variable cadences were progressively introduced. Eleven older adult responders walked faster (3.8 steps/min) than one target cadence (-10% pace) while matching the target cadences for the other paces when walking with rhythmic auditory stimulation. Two nonresponders walked near their baseline cadence with little variability while one walked at faster cadences; all three did not appear to adjust to the beat of the music. After training, participants increased their walking distance, 90.8 ± 46.5 m; t(1, 13) = -7.3; p ≤ .005, velocity, 0.36 ± 0.15 m/s; t(1, 40) = -15.4; p < .001, and maximum cadence, 20.6 ± 9.1 steps/min; t(1, 40) = -14.6; p < .001; changes exceeded minimal clinically important differences. Twelve of 14 expressed enjoyment. Walk with rhythmic auditory stimulation training is a promising activity for older adults, which may translate to an individual's ability to adapt walking speeds to various community demands.

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Background: Activity-based therapy (ABT) appears to improve outcomes for individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI); however, few studies have examined sitting static and dynamic balance. It was unknown whether individuals after SCI who elected to undergo an olfactory mucosa autograft (OMA) would respond differently to ABT. Objectives: The first objective was to assess changes in sitting strength (static) and dynamic balance in a group of individuals with SCI undergoing intensive ABT. The second objective was to determine whether sitting balance changes would be different for those who had participated in ABT after the OMA versus those who had ABT alone. Methods: A handheld dynamometer measured peak force (sitting strength) and the multi-directional reach test measured dynamic balance (n = 16). Results: ABT (average dose: 7 hours per week over 4.6 months) appeared to promote improvements in sitting strength in four directions (0.6-0.8 kg per month) and dynamic balance in four of five directions (0.7-1.3 cm per month). Individuals who had undergone an OMA had similar, but not greater, improvements in static and dynamic balance when compared with those who had ABT alone. It is unknown whether balance improvements resulted from natural or other factors. Conclusion: ABT may have contributed to balance changes in individuals with SCI. Although small improvements in sitting static and dynamic balance did occur, future research documenting therapy intervention details and ABT dose-response in larger groups of individuals with SCI must be performed to provide guidance as to the optimal, effective ABT dose required to generate clinically meaningful functional improvements.

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BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Rehabilitation for individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) is expanding to include intense, activity-based, out-patient physical therapy (PT). The study's primary purposes were to (i) examine the effectiveness of intense PT in promoting motor and sensory recovery in individuals with SCI and (ii) compare recovery for individuals who had an olfactory mucosa autograft (OMA) with individuals who did not have the OMA while both groups participated in the intense PT program. METHODS: Prospective, non-randomized, non-blinded, intervention study. Using the American Spinal Injury Association examination, motor and sensory scores for 23 (7 OMA, 6 matched control and 10 other) participants were recorded. RESULTS: Mean therapy dosage was 137.3 total hours. The participants' total, upper and lower extremity motor scores improved significantly while sensory scores did not improve during the first 60 days and from initial to discharge examination. Incomplete SCI or paraplegia was associated with greater motor recovery. Five of 14 participants converted from motor-complete to motor-incomplete SCI. Individuals who had the OMA and participated in intense PT did not have greater sensory or greater magnitude or rate of motor recovery as compared with participants who had intense PT alone. CONCLUSION: This study provides encouraging evidence as to the effectiveness of intense PT for individuals with SCI. Future research is needed to identify the optimal therapy dosage and specific therapeutic activities required to generate clinically meaningful recovery for individuals with SCI including those who elect to undergo a neural recovery/regenerative surgical procedure and those that elect intense therapy alone.

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This article summarizes presentations of a symposium examining the potential impact of activity-based therapies (ABT) in promoting neurological and functional recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI). The symposium addressed 3 key questions concerning activity-based therapy in SCI: (1) What clinical approaches are used? (2) Is there empirical evidence supporting efficacy of ABT in promoting neurological recovery and improving overall function, health, and quality of life? (3) What are the issues related to long-term viability of ABT?

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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Muscle weakness frequently impairs the ability to maintain upright sitting in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). The primary purpose of this study was to examine the intrarater and interrater reliability of hand-held dynamometry to assess postural muscle strength for maintaining upright sitting in individuals with SCI. We also assessed reliability of forces measured in four directions of force application and of measures obtained by experienced versus student physical therapist examiners. METHODS: Twenty-nine individuals with SCI (mean age, 32.4 +/- 11.0 years; injury level C4-L1; American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) classification A-D) participated in this study. The raters were two experienced physical therapists and two student physical therapists. Force was applied to the anterior, posterior, and right and left lateral trunk. Values were acquired in a group of participants who did not require upper extremity support for sitting (n = 22) and a group who did require upper extremity support (n = 7). RESULTS: Intrarater reliability was good to excellent (intraclass correlation coefficients, 0.80-0.98 [unsupported]; 0.79-0.99 [supported]) for all raters in the four directions of force application. Interrater reliability was excellent (intraclass correlation coefficients, 0.97-0.99 [unsupported]; 0.96-0.98 [supported]) for all directions. There were no significant differences among peak forces obtained among the four directions of force application or by experienced raters compared with student raters. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The use of hand-held dynamometry to assess postural muscle strength for maintaining upright sitting in individuals with SCI has high intrarater and interrater reliability. The direction of force application and experience of the rater did not influence the level of reliability. Future research is needed to identify the minimum muscle strength required to maintain the seated posture and to understand how this measure relates to seated postural control and balance.

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PURPOSES: The purposes of the study were to establish isometric torque reference values for healthy 6- to 8-year-old children for 6 lower extremity muscles and determine the effects of gender, age, height, weight, and physical activity upon strength. METHODS: A hand-held dynamometer was used to obtain force/torque values for 154 children. RESULTS: Age-referenced force/torque and cutoff values are provided for each muscle group. Torque increased with age and height for all muscles and with weight for all muscles except knee extensors. No gender differences were found. Children who participated in 3 or more hours per week in organized sports were stronger in 4 of 6 muscles; the number of hours spent in active play did not affect torque. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides hand-held dynamometer strength reference values to enable clinicians to determine if clients of the same age, height, and weight have muscle weakness.

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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The standing single-leg (SSL) heel-rise test is a measure of plantarflexor strength and endurance. However, reference values have yet to be determined for children. The purposes of this study were to: (1) determine the average number, minimum number (cut-off score) of SSL heel-rises for healthy, 7-9 year old children, (2) examine the influence of age, gender, height, weight, and physical activity characteristics upon the number of heel-rises completed, (3) examine inter-rater reliability, and (4) examine reliability between the number of repetitions counted by observation, and by video-analysis. METHOD: A total of ninety-five children, aged 7-9, performed SSL heel-rises until fatigue. The number of heel-rises were counted by two examiners and was determined from videotape. RESULTS: The children completed an average of 36 +/- 18 SSL heel-rises (COV = 50%). Age, gender, height, weight, or activity level had no significant effect upon heel-rise performance. Excellent inter-rater reliability (ICC = 0.99), reliability between the motion analysis system and the examiners (ICC = 0.93), was established. Discussion, CONCLUSION: Therapist visual observation can determine heel-rise count as accurately as when using a motion analysis system. Children who have functional limitations, who perform 13 or fewer heel-rises should repeat the SSL heel-rise test at a later date and/or perform other tests to confirm the plantarflexion muscle strength-endurance impairment prior to initiating an intervention program.

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PURPOSE: Current technology allows the recording of movement for both motion analysis and providing observational feedback. The most effective type of observational feedback is under debate. We compared a child's reach-and-point performance after viewing a videotaped playback of a model's performance and after viewing a split-screen comparison of the model's and child's performances while simultaneously receiving verbal cues. METHODS: A PTVision system provided observational feedback and recorded spatial trajectory, target accuracy, movement time, and joint angles while a 13 year-old boy with cerebral palsy reached for three targets. RESULTS: The split-screen comparison had the largest effect on reach performance, including slower-yet-more-accurate movements and a more extended wrist, curved spatial trajectories, and an ulnar-deviated wrist. CONCLUSIONS: Feedback using split-screen comparison between a model's and the child's performance with verbal cues appears to promote motor learning. When using technology to augment therapy, the intervention should be designed considering current motor learning principles.

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