RESUMEN
ABSTRACT: In Japan, strategies for ensuring food safety have been developed without reliable scientific evidence on the relationship between foodborne diseases and food sources. This study aimed to provide information on the proportions of foodborne diseases caused by seven major causative pathogens (Campylobacter spp., Salmonella, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli [EHEC], Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus, and norovirus) attributed to foods and to explore factors affecting changes in these source attribution proportions over time using analysis of outbreak surveillance data. For the calculation of the number of outbreaks attributed to each source, simple-food outbreaks were assigned to the single-food category in question, and complex-food outbreaks were classified under each category proportional to the estimated probability. During 2007 to 2018, 8,730 outbreaks of foodborne diseases caused by seven pathogens were reported, of which 6,690 (76.6%) were of unknown source. We estimated the following source attribution proportions of foodborne diseases: chicken products (80.3%, 95% uncertainty interval [UI] 80.1 to 80.4) for Campylobacter spp.; beef products (50.1%, UI 47.0 to 51.5) and vegetables (42.3%, UI 40.9 to 45.5) for EHEC; eggs (34.6%, UI 27.8 to 41.4) and vegetables (34.4%, UI 27.8 to 40.8) for Salmonella; finfish (50.3%, UI 33.3 to 66.7) and shellfish (49.7%, UI 33.3 to 66.7) for V. parahaemolyticus; grains and beans (57.8%, UI 49.7 to 64.9) for S. aureus; vegetables (63.6%, UI 48.5 to 74.6), chicken products (12.7%, UI 4.6 to 21.5), and beef products (11.1%, UI 8.5 to 13.1) for C. perfringens; and shellfish (75.5%, UI 74.7 to 76.2) for norovirus. In this study, we provide the best available evidence-based information to evaluate the link between foodborne diseases and foods. Our results on source attribution for Campylobacter spp. and EHEC suggest that the strict health regulations for raw beef were reflected in the proportions of these diseases attributed to this food.
Asunto(s)
Enfermedades Transmitidas por los Alimentos , Agua , Animales , Bovinos , Brotes de Enfermedades , Microbiología de Alimentos , Enfermedades Transmitidas por los Alimentos/epidemiología , Humanos , Japón/epidemiología , Staphylococcus aureusRESUMEN
Most cases of acute gastroenteritis and foodborne disease are not ascertained by public health surveillance because the ill person does not always seek medical care and submit a stool sample for testing, and the laboratory does not always test for or identify the causative organism. We estimated the total burden of acute gastroenteritis in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, using data from two 2-week cross-sectional, population-based telephone surveys conducted in 2006 and 2007. To estimate the number of acute gastroenteritis illnesses caused by Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Miyagi Prefecture, we determined the number of cases for each pathogen from active laboratory-based surveillance during 2005 to 2006 and adjusted for seeking of medical care and submission of stool specimens by using data from the population-based telephone surveys. Monte Carlo simulation was used to incorporate uncertainty. The prevalence of acute gastroenteritis in the preceding 4 weeks was 3.3% (70 of 2,126) and 3.5% (74 of 2,121) in the winter and summer months, yielding an estimated 44,200 episodes of acute gastroenteritis each year in this region. Among people with acute gastroenteritis, the physician consultation rate was 32.0%, and 10.9% of persons who sought care submitted a stool sample. The estimated numbers of Campylobacter-, Salmonella-, and V. parahaemolyticus -associated episodes of acute gastroenteritis were 1,512, 209, and 100 per 100,000 population per year, respectively, in this region. These estimates are significantly higher than the number of reported cases in surveillance in this region. Cases ascertained from active surveillance were also underrepresented in the present passive surveillance, suggesting that complementary surveillance systems, such as laboratory-based active surveillance in sentinel sites, are needed to monitor food safety in Japan.
Asunto(s)
Infecciones por Campylobacter/epidemiología , Enfermedades Transmitidas por los Alimentos/epidemiología , Gastroenteritis/epidemiología , Intoxicación Alimentaria por Salmonella/epidemiología , Vibriosis/epidemiología , Enfermedad Aguda , Adolescente , Adulto , Anciano , Infecciones por Campylobacter/etiología , Niño , Preescolar , Costo de Enfermedad , Recolección de Datos , Heces/microbiología , Femenino , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Japón/epidemiología , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Método de Montecarlo , Prevalencia , Intoxicación Alimentaria por Salmonella/etiología , Estaciones del Año , Vigilancia de Guardia , Vibriosis/etiología , Vibrio parahaemolyticus/patogenicidad , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
To estimate the human health burden of foodborne infections caused by Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Japan, an epidemiological study was conducted in Miyagi Prefecture. Laboratory-confirmed infections among patients with diarrhea caused by the three pathogens were ascertained from two clinical laboratories in the prefecture from April 2005 to March 2006. To estimate the number of ill persons who were not laboratory-confirmed, we estimated physician-consultation rates for patients with acute diarrhea by analyzing foodborne outbreak investigation data for each pathogen and the frequency at which stool specimens were submitted from a physician survey. Each factor was added to a Monte-Carlo simulation model as a probability distribution, and the number of laboratory-confirmed cases was extrapolated to estimate the total number of ill persons. The estimated incidence of foodborne infections per 100,000 per year in this region estimated by this model was 237 cases for Campylobacter, 32 cases for Salmonella, and 15 cases for V. parahaemolyticus. Simulated results indicate a significant difference between our estimated incidence and the reported cases of food poisoning in this region. An enhanced surveillance system is needed to complement the present passive surveillance on foodborne illnesses in Japan to identify food safety issues more precisely, and to monitor the effectiveness of risk management options.
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Infecciones por Campylobacter/epidemiología , Brotes de Enfermedades , Microbiología de Alimentos , Intoxicación Alimentaria por Salmonella/epidemiología , Vibriosis/epidemiología , Diarrea/epidemiología , Diarrea/microbiología , Humanos , Incidencia , Japón/epidemiología , Vigilancia de la Población , Salud PúblicaRESUMEN
Codex standards have become the benchmarks against which national food safety control measures and regulations are evaluated within the legal parameters of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements. For this reason, high-level representation at meetings of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, it's related committees and ad hoc intergovernmental task forces continue to be a priority for many governments. Opportunities broaden for stakeholder input towards the development of government positions for all Codex work through the national Codex website. Some countries utilize a national Codex website as an effective communication tool between the national Codex Contact Point (CCP) and stakeholders. In this regard, stockholder participation in the national Codex preparation process is insufficient in Japan. One of the reasons for this could be the lack of information on Codex and the insufficient understanding of the work of Codex among Japanese stakeholders. To overcome these problems, more active and effective utilization of the Japanese Codex webpage should be considered. In this paper, we show analyses of recent trends of the information on Codex available from national Codex websites from six countries in order to identify the needs to establish a similar Japanese Codex website and possible contents of the site. The six websites of the national CCPs analyzed are regularly updated and utilized for the means of active information interchange between national CCPs and stakeholders, for example, providing basic general information on Codex, including its purpose, structure and meeting schedule, posting Codex working documents open for comment, and the Terms of Reference, key issues under discussion, and delegation reports of the previous sessions. Consequently, stakeholders interested in the paper could submit their comments to the delegate of the country whose contact details are made available on the website. This is one of the examples of active stakeholder participation. By establishing a similar communication system in Japan between the National Codex Contact Point and stakeholders, a more active stakeholder participation in the national codex process could be achieved. The web site could be used to provide information on the issues under discussion in each Committee and summaries of the Codex working documents circulated for the comments and their potential implications in Japan.
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Seguridad de Productos para el Consumidor/normas , Alimentos/normas , Internet/tendencias , Medición de Riesgo/tendencias , Cooperación Internacional , JapónRESUMEN
Historically, outbreaks associated with Salmonella-contaminated milk products were recognized as early as the 1950's in the United Kingdom and Bulgaria. In the 1960's and 1970's there were also a number of outbreaks related to Salmonella in various powdered milk products. As a result, Salmonella criterion was included in the Codex Code of hygienic practice for foods for infants and children. Between 1985 and 2005 at least 6 outbreaks of salmonellosis, involving as many as 250 infants, have been associated with powdered infant formula (PIF). In 2005, in France, an outbreak affecting more than 100 infants was associated with PIF contaminated with Salmonella Agona. These reported outbreaks indicated that problems persisted. Experts from two FAO/WHO Expert Consultations, held in 2004 and 2006, concluded that intrinsic contamination of PIF with Enterobacter sakazakii and Salmonella has been a cause of infection and illness in infants, including severe disease which can lead to serious developmental sequelae and death. Most of the Salmonella outbreaks associated with PIF involved unusual Salmonella serotypes, which likely aided in the recognition of these outbreaks. In many regions of the world where Salmonella serotyping is not routinely performed, identification of geographically or temporarily diffused outbreaks could be difficult. It is therefore important to use the appropriate methodology to detect unusual strains of Salmonella that cause illnesses in infants, such as the lactose-positive strain, and to perform serotyping and/or pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) genotyping for rapid identification of Salmonella outbreaks and to establish linkages between the illness and implicated food.
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Microbiología de Alimentos , Fórmulas Infantiles , Infecciones por Salmonella/epidemiología , Salmonella/aislamiento & purificación , Australia/epidemiología , Brotes de Enfermedades , Electroforesis en Gel de Campo Pulsado , Europa (Continente)/epidemiología , Genotipo , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Polvos , Salmonella/clasificación , Salmonella/genética , Infecciones por Salmonella/microbiología , Serotipificación , Factores de Tiempo , Estados Unidos/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
The expression of activin and inhibin has been demonstrated in the hypothalamus, but their physiological roles in the brain remain to be elucidated. In the present study, involvement of activin and inhibin in the regulation of food and water intake was examined. Male rats were deprived of food or water for 12 and 60 hr, and mRNA levels of activin/inhibin alpha, betaA and betaB subunits in the hypothalamus were estimated by RT-PCR. Gene expression of alpha subunit transiently decreased at 12 hr of food deprivation, while it did not change during water deprivation. Food and water deprivation for 60 hr increased mRNA levels of betaA and betaB subunits, respectively. These results indicated that gene expression of each subunit was independently regulated. Injection of activin A (0.5 and 4.0 microg) into the third ventricle decreased food intake. Water intake was suppressed by 4.0 microg, but not 0.5 microg, of activin A. Intracerebroventricular injection of inhibin A (0.5 and 4.0 microg) decreased water intake in a dose dependent manner without affecting food intake, suggesting that inhibin could act independently of activin. Taken together, it is suggested that activin and inhibin take part in the central regulation of nutrient and fluid balance, though further study is needed to determine precise molecular species involved.
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Activinas/metabolismo , Ingestión de Líquidos/fisiología , Ingestión de Alimentos/fisiología , Inhibinas/metabolismo , Activinas/genética , Activinas/farmacología , Animales , Ingestión de Líquidos/efectos de los fármacos , Ingestión de Alimentos/efectos de los fármacos , Privación de Alimentos , Regulación de la Expresión Génica , Hipotálamo/metabolismo , Inhibinas/genética , Inhibinas/farmacología , Masculino , ARN Mensajero/análisis , Ratas , Factores de Tiempo , Privación de AguaRESUMEN
The effect of vinclozolin (VCZ), used as a fungicide and known to have anti-androgenic effects on spermatogenesis and gene expression in the male rat testis was investigated. In Experiment 1, VCZ (100 mg/kg/day) or flutamide (FM, 25 mg/kg/day) was orally administered to male Holzman rats for six days. 8 days after the last administration (D8), a drastic increase in intratesticular testosterone was detected in FM (4.2-fold over control) but not in VCZ treated animals, whereas on D36 post-administration, both groups showed similar levels. Significant decreases in daily sperm production were seen in both VCZ and FM-treated rats on D36. Semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis with testicular and pituitary mRNAs on D8 revealed that LHbeta and FSHbeta mRNAs were increased in the pituitary by VCZ, as well as by FM. Among the four testicular steroidogenic enzyme genes, cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage (P450scc) and cytochrome P450 17alpha/C(17-20) lyase (P450c17) mRNAs were significantly increased, whereas 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type III (17betaHSD) mRNA was not changed. A significant increase in 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I (3betaHSD) and a decrease in androgen receptor (AR) mRNA were observed only in FM treated rats. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated intense staining of P450scc in the interstitial cells of VCZ-treated testis on D8. In Experiment 2, hormone levels were measured at 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 hours after VCZ (100 mg/kg) administration to Sprague-Dawley rats. Serum LH level remained constant for the first 3 hours and started to increase at 6 hrs. In contrast, serum and intratesticular testosterone levels increased 2-fold at 1 hr and maintained the level until 24 hrs. P450c17 mRNA level was 2-fold increased at all periods, whereas no obvious changes were detected in the other steroidogenic enzyme genes. Although not statistically significant, AR mRNA level increased 2-fold, 3 hrs after VCZ administration. These results indicate that VCZ affects the pituitary in a similar manner as FM, but functions differently on testicular gene expression.
Asunto(s)
Oxazoles/toxicidad , Espermatogénesis/efectos de los fármacos , Testosterona/biosíntesis , Antagonistas de Andrógenos/administración & dosificación , Antagonistas de Andrógenos/toxicidad , Animales , Enzima de Desdoblamiento de la Cadena Lateral del Colesterol/genética , Enzima de Desdoblamiento de la Cadena Lateral del Colesterol/metabolismo , Flutamida/administración & dosificación , Flutamida/toxicidad , Fungicidas Industriales/administración & dosificación , Fungicidas Industriales/toxicidad , Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Hormonas/sangre , Hormona Luteinizante de Subunidad beta/sangre , Masculino , Oxazoles/administración & dosificación , Hipófisis/efectos de los fármacos , Hipófisis/metabolismo , ARN Mensajero/genética , ARN Mensajero/metabolismo , Ratas , Ratas Sprague-Dawley , Receptores Androgénicos/genética , Esteroides/biosíntesis , Testículo/efectos de los fármacos , Testículo/metabolismo , Testosterona/sangreRESUMEN
In the course of profiling alterations of gene expression in the male reproductive system induced by anti-androgenic agents, 28 genes expressed in the testis or pituitary of adult rats were examined shortly after subacute administration of the well-known anti-androgen, flutamide (FM). FM (25 mg/kg/day) was orally administered to male rats for six days. On day 8 (D8) after the first dose of FM, intratesticular testosterone (T) levels had dramatically increased, but daily sperm production on D36 was significantly decreased. The mRNA levels of testicular and pituitary genes on D8 were measured by semiquantitative RT-PCR. Among the six testicular steroidogenic enzyme genes, the mRNAs of the P450 side chain cleavage, P450 17 alpha/C(17-20) lyase, and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I (3betaHSD) genes significantly increased, whereas 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type III slightly decreased. Among the three steroid receptors examined, androgen receptor (AR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mRNAs were significantly down-regulated (29% and 35%, respectively) in the testis, but there was no change in estrogen receptor alpha. There were no clear changes in expression of the gonadotropin receptors and Sertoli cell specific genes, but a slight increase was observed in expression of the lactose dehydrogenase-c mRNA, a germ cell specific gene. Among the three immediate early genes, c-myc mRNA was increased approximately 1.4-fold. In the pituitary, on the other hand, mRNAs for LHbeta and FSHbeta subunits and gonadotropin releasing hormone receptor had increased significantly. These results show that subacute FM administration first affected hypothalamus/pituitary hormone gene expression, then altered gonadotropin secretion, and subsequently induced over-expression of testicular steroidogenic enzyme genes. However, the significant up-regulation of 3betaHSD and down-regulation of AR mRNAs, despite the higher level of intratesticular T, might be explained by an antagonistic action of hydroxyflutamide retained in the testis. The profiles of alterations in gene expression observed will provide important information for the screening of adult male animals for anti-androgenic chemicals.