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In the present review, examples, regulations, limitation, and prospects of food upcycling in South Korea were discussed. When food loss rate was analyzed from the 2015-2020 data of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), most foods cause a food loss between 0 and 10% before consumption. Various examples of food upcycling have been reported in South Korea, including carrot, pomegranate, broccoli, green onion, onion, garlic, rice, yuza, and etc. For upcycling of these byproducts in South Korea, permission from recycling environmental assessment system is necessary except for circulating resources like coffee ground, rice bran, and rick husk. Major limitations of food upcycling are the risk of microbiological, chemical hazards and low marketability. However, companies will actively upcycling the by-products in line with Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) trends. Therefore, Korean governments should check the related regulations seriously to activate food upcycling industry.

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Imbalanced nutrition in modern society is one of the reasons for disorders, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes, which have attracted the interest in bioactives (particularly polyphenols) to assist in the balanced diet of modern people. Although stability can be maintained during preparation and storage, the ingested polyphenols undergo harsh gastrointestinal digestion processes, resulting in limited bioaccessibility and low gut-epithelial permeation and bioavailability. Several lipid-based formulations have been proposed to overcome these issues. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) have also been highlighted as carrier systems for the oral delivery of lipophilic bioactives, including polyphenols. This paper summarizes the research on the ingredients, production methods, post-processing procedures, general characteristics, and advantages and disadvantages of SLNs and NLCs. Overall, this paper reviews the applications and perspectives of polyphenol-loaded SLNs and NLCs in foods, as well as their regulation, production, storage, and economic feasibility.

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This study analyzes and compares foodborne disease outbreaks reported in the Republic of Korea (KR) and the United States (US) during 2011-2017. The foodborne outbreaks data in the KR and the US were collected from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety and from the Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks United States, respectively. The average number of outbreaks and illness population were higher in the US than in the KR, but the KR's illness ratio considering population size was 2.4 times higher than that of the US. When the sites of outbreaks compared, the number of illness was the highest at schools in the KR whereas outbreaks at restaurants were more frequent in the US. In the KR, bacterial infections were the primary cause of outbreaks while bacterial and viral infections accounted for the largest share of outbreaks in the US. Specifically, pathogenic E. coli presented a significant risk in the KR whereas Salmonella was the most prevalent in the US. These results indicate that the main microbiological targets for detection and control in the KR should differ from the US, which should be considered for developing food safety related policies.

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HIGHLIGHTS: Germinant compounds were combined with SHS to inactivate B. cereus spores. B. cereus spores were inactivated effectively by SHS after Ala+IMP treatment. Inactivation trend was analyzed by the Weibull model, and t3 d values were determined. Sublethal injury was not observed by SHS after Ala+IMP treatment.

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Lycopene is a natural antioxidant which has several health benefits. Undesirable oxidation of lycopene compromises its health benefits and also affects the sensory quality of food products containing lycopene. Health benefits associated with lycopene in food preparations can be enhanced by preventing its degradation by incorporating it into the oil phase of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion. In this study, lycopene nanoemulsions were prepared from a low-concentration lycopene extract using an emulsification-evaporation technique. The effects of the concentrations of the lycopene extract (0.015 to 0.085 mg/mL) and emulsifier (0.3 to 0.7 mg/mL), and the number of homogenization cycles (2 to 4) on the droplet size, emulsification efficiency (EE), and nanoemulsion stability were investigated and optimized by statistical analysis using a Box-Behnken design. Regression analysis was used to determine the 2nd-order polynomial model relationship of independent and dependent variables, with multiple regression coefficients (R(2)) of 0.924, 0.933, and 0.872, for the droplet size, EE, and nanoemulsion stability, respectively. Analysis of variance showed that the lycopene extract concentration has the most significant effect on all the response variables. Response surface methodology predicted that a formulation containing 0.085 mg/mL of lycopene extract and 0.7 mg/mL of emulsifier, subjected to 3 homogenization cycles, is optimal for achieving the smallest droplet size, greatest emulsion stability, and acceptable EE. The observed responses were in agreement with the predicted values of the optimized formulation. This study provided important information about the statistical design of lycopene nanoemulsion preparation.

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An economical aerosol sanitization system was developed based on sensor technology for minimizing sanitizer usage, while maintaining bactericidal efficacy. Aerosol intensity in a system chamber was controlled by a position-sensitive device and its infrared value range. The effectiveness of the infrared sensor-based aerosolization (ISA) system to inactivate Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on spinach leaf surfaces was compared with conventional aerosolization (full-time aerosol treated), and the amount of sanitizer consumed was determined after operation. Three pathogens artificially inoculated onto spinach leaf surfaces were treated with aerosolized peracetic acid (400 ppm) for 15, 30, 45, and 60 min at room temperature (22 ± 2°C). Using the ISA system, inactivation levels of the three pathogens were equal or better than treatment with conventional full-time aerosolization. However, the amount of sanitizer consumed was reduced by ca. 40% using the ISA system. The results of this study suggest that an aerosol sanitization system combined with infrared sensor technology could be used for transportation and storage of fresh produce efficiently and economically as a practical commercial intervention.

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This article examines potential effects of two physical developments (presence or absence of an aerial tramway, a road vs. a trail) and one social variable (increasing encounters with other people) on individuals' perceptions of settings (i.e., perceived settings), crowding, and acceptance of encounters (i.e., norms) in Mudeungsan Provincial Park in South Korea, where there have been proposals for a new aerial tramway. Data were obtained from 241 students at Chonnam National University, almost all of whom had previously visited this park (e.g., 66 % visited at least one of the two study locations in this park, 55 % visited this park in the past 12 months). Simulated photographs showed encounter levels (1 or 15 hikers), the presence or absence of a tramway, and a road versus a trail. Respondents encountering low numbers of other people felt less crowded, considered these use levels to be more acceptable, and perceived the area as more pristine and less developed. Locations containing an aerial tramway were perceived as more developed and less natural, and higher encounter levels were considered to be more acceptable at these locations. Whether settings contained a road or a trail did not influence perceived settings, crowding, or norms. Implications of these findings for future research and management of parks and related outdoor settings are discussed.

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Ginsenoside 20-O-ß-D glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (compound K), a minor ginsenoside, is not found in white raw ginseng, but has better bioavailability than the major ginsenosides in ginseng. Employing commercial enzyme packages for industrial applications, the optimum conditions for enzymatic transformation for the highest content of compound K was explored to enhance the health benefits of ginseng extract. Cytolase PCL 5 was selected from commercial enzyme packages nominated for high ß-glucosidase activity. By response surface methodology, the optimal conditions were identified as 78 h of treatment at pH 4.3 at 55.4 °C for 2.068 mg/mL of compound K, showing good agreement with the experimental value.

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This study was performed to compare the effectiveness of ultrasound treatment singly and in combination with surfactants as an alternative method to conventional sanitizers containing chlorine for reducing numbers of Bacillus cereus spores on fresh produce. A cocktail of three strains of B. cereus (10876, ATCC 13061, and W-1) spores was inoculated onto iceberg lettuce and then treated with ultrasound for 0, 5, 10, 20 and 60 min. Five minutes was found to be an adequate ultrasound (40 kHz, 30 W/L) treatment time which also caused no damage to lettuce leaf surfaces as observed through a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM). Iceberg lettuce and carrots were inoculated with a cocktail of three strains of B. cereus spores and treated with combinations of ultrasound and various concentrations (0.03 to 0.3%) of surfactant (Tween 20, 40, 60, 80 and Span 20, 80, 85) solutions for 5 min. The efficacy of the combination of ultrasound and surfactant increased depending on the hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB). The most effective treatment for reducing levels of B. cereus spores was the combination of ultrasound and 0.1% Tween 20, yielding reductions of 2.49 and 2.22 log CFU/g on lettuce and carrots, respectively, without causing deterioration of quality. These reductions were 1 log greater than those obtained by immersion in 200 ppm chlorine for 5 min. Further research for elimination of B. cereus spores involving study of spore adhesion and removal mechanisms from food surfaces is needed, as well as devising an industrial-scale ultrasound system for the food industry.

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Selective agar is inadequate for supporting recovery of injured cells. During risk assessment of certain foods, both injured and noninjured cells must be enumerated. In this study, a new method (agar spray method) for recovering sublethally heat-injured microorganisms was developed and used for recovery of heat-injured Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes. Molten selective agar was applied as an overlay to presolidified nonselective tryptic soy agar (TSA) by spray application. Heat-injured cells (55°C for 10 min in 0.1% peptone water or 55°C for 15 min in sterilized skim milk) were inoculated directly onto solidified TSA. After a 2-h incubation period for cell repair, selective agar was applied to the TSA surface with a sprayer, and the plates were incubated. The recovery rate for heat-injured Salmonella Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes with the spray method was compared with the corresponding rates associated with TSA alone, selective media alone, and the conventional overlay method (selective agar poured on top of resuscitated cells grown on TSA and incubated for 2 h). No significant differences (P > 0.05) were found in pathogen recovery obtained with TSA, the overlay method, and the spray method. However, a lower recovery rate (P < 0.05) was obtained for isolation of injured cells on selective media. Overall, these results indicate that the agar spray method is an acceptable alternative to the conventional overlay method and is a simpler and more convenient approach to recovery and detection of injured cells.

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This study was designed to investigate the individual and combined effects of steam and lactic acid (LA) on the inactivation of biofilms formed by Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and stainless steel. Six day old biofilms were developed on PVC and stainless steel coupons by using a mixture of three strains each of three foodborne pathogens at 25°C. After biofilm development, PVC and stainless steel coupons were treated with LA alone (immersed in 0.5% or 2% for 5s, 15s, and 30s), steam alone (on both sides for 5, 10, and 20s), and the combination of steam and LA. The numbers of biofilm cells of the three foodborne pathogens were significantly (p<0.05) reduced as the amount of LA and duration of steam exposure increased. There was a synergistic effect of steam and LA on the viability of biofilm cells of the three pathogens. For all biofilm cells of the three foodborne pathogens, reduction levels of individual treatments ranged from 0.11 to 2.12 log CFU/coupon. The combination treatment of steam and LA achieved an additional 0.2 to 2.11 log reduction compared to the sum of individual treatments. After a combined treatment of immersion in 2% LA for 15s or 30s followed by exposure to steam for 20s, biofilm cells of the three pathogens were reduced to below the detection limit (1.48 log). From the results of this study, bacterial populations of biofilms on PVC coupons did not receive the same thermal effect as on stainless steel coupons. Effectiveness of steam and LA may be attributed to the difference between Gram-negative and Gram-positive characteristics of the bacteria studied. The results of this study suggest that the combination of steam and LA has potential as a biofilm control intervention for food processing facilities.

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Soundscapes in recreation settings are becoming an important issue, but there are few studies of the effects of sounds on recreation experiences, especially crowding perceptions and encounter norms. This study compared effects of six types of sounds (an airplane, a truck engine, children playing, birds, water, and a control) on perceived crowding (PC) and encounter norms for hikers. Data were collected from 47 college students through lab experiments using simulated images, with moving hikers inserted in the original photo taken in the Jungmeori area of Mudeungsan Provincial Park in Korea. Overall, the motor-made sounds of the airplane and truck engine increased PC and decreased acceptability ratings, and the natural sounds of birds and water decreased PC and increased acceptability ratings. Ratings of the sound of children playing were similar to those in the control (i.e., no sound). In addition, as numbers of hikers increased, the overall effects of sounds decreased, and there were few significant differences in PC or acceptability ratings at the highest encounter levels. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.

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People receive information about visiting places from a variety of sources, and it is important to understand how information affects recreation experiences. This study examines how different information treatments describing a recreation place influence perceived crowding and encounter norms. The study location was the Jungmoeri area of Mudeungsan Provincial Park (MPP) in Korea. Data were collected from 50 college students utilizing a series of simulated moving pictures in a laboratory setting. Respondents were given information describing three different types of conditions and experiences (nature preserve, transition/buffer, and developed area), plus a no information control. Results showed that information influenced perceived crowding and encounter norms. For the range of encounter numbers depicted in the photos, the nature preserve treatment produced higher crowding ratings and lower tolerances for encounters, the developed area treatment produced lower crowding ratings and higher tolerances, and the transition/buffer and the control were in between. Information treatments also influence the perceived importance of encounter numbers, and importance was highest for the nature preserve. Management implications are discussed.

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Norm stability is an important issue to consider in using the normative approach as a component of resource management decision making. This study examines three major questions related to norm stability: (1) Do norms change over time? (2) Do existing conditions affect norms? (3) Do background characteristics and visitation patterns affect norms? Data used in this study were collected at a campground in the Jirisan National Park (JNP) of Korea in 1993, 1994, and 2003. A total of 396 subjects were used for the study (120 for 1993, 106 for 1994, and 170 for 2003). Changes in the standards for "quiet time" and "seeing others littering" were statistically significant, but there was no change in the standard for "number of other tents." There was little change in norm agreement or norm prevalence. Existing conditions were strongly correlated with standards for number of other tents but results were mixed for the other two indicators. Users' demographic characteristics and visitation patterns were not generally related to norms. Findings of the study are discussed.

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This study examined the comparability of onsite and offsite methods for measuring norms for trail impacts using photo/survey techniques. A total of 449 subjects participated in a study of Mudeung-Mountain Provincial Park, Gwang-Ju, Korea. For the overall photo evaluation method (OPEM), respondents rated the acceptability of bare soil area for each of a series of photographs. For the specific photo evaluation method (SPEM), respondents selected a photograph that illustrated the largest acceptable proportion of bare soil area from a series of 10 photographs. Overall, there were no substantial differences in maximum acceptable impacts between onsite (onsite-I visitor group surveyed at the actual trail points and onsite-II departing visitor group surveyed at the exit area) and offsite (students surveyed in a laboratory setting) groups for the two norm measurement alternatives (OPEM and SPEM). Subjects' difficulty ratings were low for both methods, and there were no substantial differences in norms between individuals with high and low levels of experience at the park. The offsite method appears to be substitutable for onsite methods in this particular study area, which is a frontcountry setting with a relatively simple range of recreation opportunities. Implications and further studies are discussed.

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"Indicators" are a key component of resource management, but selecting them can be difficult and controversial. This study explores different methods for selecting impact indicators for management of trail conditions by comparing photo survey methods (PSM) with written survey methods (WSM). A total of 661 subjects participated in interviews conducted within Mudeung-Mountain Provincial Park in Kwang-ju, Korea. PSM explained variation in acceptability better than WSM. Six major photo components (in order of importance: area of large rocks on trail, area of wood steps, area of bare roots, area of bare soil, area of small stones, and area of stone steps) explained 84.7% of the variation in acceptability of trail management conditions. This study suggests that PSM can be a useful tool for selecting impact indicators.

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