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Species belonging to the filamentous fungal genus Trichoderma are well known as potential candidates for the biological control of plant pathogenic fungi and as cellulase producers of biotechnological importance. Several data were published in the last decade also about the clinical importance of this genus, indicating that Trichoderma strains may be potential opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised patients. However, there is a lack of information about the potential virulence factors of clinical Trichoderma strains. This study was designed to examine the extracellular proteolytic enzymes of six clinical T. longibrachiatum isolates. Supernatants from induced liquid cultures of the examined strains were screened for proteolytic enzyme activities with 11 different chromogenic p-nitroaniline substrates. The production of trypsin-like, chymotrypsin-like and chymoelastase-like protease activities cleaving N-Benzoyl-L-Phe-L-Val-L-Arg-p-nitroanilide, N-Succinyl-L-Ala-L-Ala-L-Pro-L-Phe-p-nitroanilide, and N-Succinyl-L-Ala-L-Ala-L-Pro-L-Leu-p-nitroanilide, respectively, was common among the strains examined. Separation of trypsin- and chymotrypsin-like activities by column chromatography revealed, that both systems are complex consisting of several isoenzymes. The pH-dependence of these two protease systems was also studied. Based on the results, the different isoenzymes seem to have different optimal pH values. Extracellular proteolytic enzymes may be involved in the pathogenecity of Trichoderma strains as facultative human pathogens.

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AIMS: Water activity (aw) and pH are probably the most important environmental parameters affecting the activities of mycoparasitic Trichoderma strains. Therefore it is important to collect information on the effects of these factors on mycelial growth and on the in vitro activities of extracellular enzymes involved in nutrient competition (e.g. beta-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase and beta-xylosidase) and mycoparasitism (e.g. N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase, trypsin-like protease and chymotrypsin-like protease) of Trichoderma strains with biocontrol potential. METHODS AND RESULTS: Water activity and pH dependence of the linear mycelial growth of five examined Trichoderma strains belonging to three different species groups was examined on yeast extract and soil extract media. Maximal growth rates were observed at aw 0.997 and pH 4.0 in the case of all strains. The activities of the examined extracellular enzymes at different aw and pH values were determined spectrophotometrically after incubation with chromogenic p-nitrophenyl and p-nitroaniline substrates. Maximal enzyme activities were measured at aw 0.950 for beta-glucosidase, trypsin-like protease and chymotrypsin-like protease, at 0.910 for cellobiohydrolase and at 0.993 for beta-xylosidase and N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase enzymes. Optimal pH values are suggested to be at 5.0 for beta-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase and N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase, at 3.0 for beta-xylosidase, at 6.0 for trypsin-like protease and between 6.0 and 7.0 for chymotrypsin-like protease activities, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Extracellular enzymes of the examined mycoparasitic Trichoderma strains are able to display activities under a wider range of aw and pH values than those allowing mycelial growth. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Data about the effects of aw and pH on mycelial growth and extracellular enzyme activities of Trichoderma reveal useful information about the applicability of biocontrol strains in agricultural soils with specific water and pH relations.

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Opportunistic fungal infections have been observed with increasing frequency in recent years in immunocompromised patients. Several data were published in the last decade about the clinical importance of the filamentous fungal genus Trichoderma, indicating that Trichoderma strains--besides their agricultural and biotechnological importance--may be potential opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised hosts as well. This review is going to summarize the clinical case reports about Trichoderma infections, and to discuss the information available on the antifungal susceptibility and on the ecophysiological, enzymological and systematic aspects of clinical Trichoderma isolates.

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When cultured in feather-containing broth with a growth optimum of pH 7.0 and 47 degrees C, a Bacillus licheniformis strain exhibited a high chicken feather-degrading activity. A trypsin-like protease was isolated from its ferment broth and was partially characterized. The enzyme was constitutively secreted and was highly active towards N-benzoyl-Phe-Val-Arg-p-nitroanilide as chromogenic substrate. Its pH optimum was 8.5 and it exhibited the highest activity at 52 degrees C. Fractionation on Sephadex G-100 column revealed that its molecular mass was about 42 kDa. The enzyme, which is new for the genus Bacillus, is a thiol protease, as tosyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone, tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and ethylenediamine tetraacetate did not inhibit it, while HgCl2 and para-chloromercuribenzoate lowered its activity.

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Mitochondrial transmission was carried out under selective conditions between incompatible Aspergillus japonicus strains always using an oligomycin-resistant mitochondrial donor and selecting for recipient nuclei and oligomycin-resistant mitochondria. All attempted intraspecific mitochondrial transmissions were successful, but the transmission between closely related A. japonicus and A. aculeatus failed. Under selection pressure, resistant progeny harbor the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the donor strain, which may remain unchanged or may be modified by the introns of the recipient mitochondrial genome. Detailed analysis of a certain strain harboring rearranged mtDNA suggests that the mtDNA profiles of recombinant-like progeny are strongly influenced by the characteristics and mobility of introns of both parental mtDNAs. Both intron loss and intron acquisition play a role in the rearrangement of mtDNA. In certain parental combinations, a particular intron was lost very frequently.

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As black Aspergillus isolates are highly heterokaryon-incompatible mitochondrial transmissions were performed by protoplast fusion. Donor strains with oligomycin-resistant mitochondria and sensitive recipient partners of various A. japonicus isolates were applied and the progeny were selected for oligomycin resistance and for recipient nuclear phenotype. These strains basically inherited the mitochondrial DNA of the donor strain, which might remain unchanged (substituted progeny) or might be modified by specific sequences of the recipient mtDNAs (recombinant progeny). Different mobile elements characteristic of the recipient parents were exclusively responsible for the development of the feature of recombinant mtDNAs. Substituted progeny were either stable wild-type-like strains as a result of compatible co-operation between donor mitochondria and recipient nuclei, or aconidial strains with a reduced fitness, exhibiting a certain instability. The latter type was probably due to the less compatible communication between nuclear and extrachromosomal genetic systems originating from different parents. These progeny were able to undergo some developmental (segregation) processes during subsequent cultivation, resulting in a stable, wild-type phenotype which possessed a new type of mtDNA resembling that of the acceptor parents.

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Cryptococcus hungaricus is a basidiomycetous yeast with the abilities to synthesize carotenoid pigments and to grow under psychrophile conditions. Six C. hungaricus strains have been isolated so far from different habitats. In this study we wished to clarify the relationships amongst them. Morphological and physiological characters, mitochondrial DNA restriction profiles, and the presence of mycoviruses were examined. Internal transcribed spacers together with the 5.8S rDNA, the D1/D2 region of 26S rDNA, and partial sequences of the 18S rRNA gene were also analysed. On the basis of the phylogenetic analyses the type strain CBS 4214(T) together with four other C. hungaricus isolates were closely related to Bullera armeniaca and Bullera crocea, while strain CBS 6569 was much more similar to Cystofilobasidium than to the other C. hungaricus isolates.

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For interpretation of intraspecific polymorphism and the considerable differences in the size of mtDNAs among three groups of A. carbonarius, restriction maps were constructed from several enzymes. Functional maps were also developed to compare genome organisations and gene content. The appearance of various mtDNAs of A. carbonarius strains are different in size, but their gene content is almost identical. The 1.1 kb size difference between two closely related subgroups (1a, 1b) can be attributed to the presence or absence of an intron in cox2 gene. This phenomenon demonstrates that the migration of introns is possibly responsible for the development of variable mitochondrial genomes in nature. The striking differences in size and restriction patterns between two main mtDNA groups might derive from both the intronal variations and the altered intergenic organisation.

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Previous mitochondrial transmission experiments between oligomycin-resistant and oligomycin-sensitive incompatible strains of the A. niger aggregate bearing various mtDNA RFLP profiles resulted in a great variety of mitochondrial recombinants under selection pressure. Apart from the recombinant mtDNAs, resistant clones harbouring unchanged RFLP profiles of resistant donor mtDNAs with the recipient nuclear backgrounds were rarely isolated. These strains were anastomosed with nuclearly isogenic oligomycin-sensitive recipient partners and the mitochondria of the resulting progeny were examined under non-selective conditions. These experiments provide insights into events which are possibly similar to those occurring in nature. The heterokaryons obtained formed both oligomycin-resistant and -sensitive sectors, most of which were found to be homoplasmons. Progenies harbouring oligomycin-resistant and -sensitive mtDNAs may originate either from individual recombination events or be due to parental segregation. MtDNA recombination might take place in the heterokaryons without selection by oligomycin. The most frequent recombinant types of mtDNA RFLP profiles were indistinguishable from those recombinant mtDNAs which were frequently obtained under selection pressure from directed transfer experiments between incompatible strains. We present evidence that mixed mitochondrial populations may influence the compatibility reactions in the presence of an isogenic nuclear background, that recombination may take place without selection pressure, and that the process does not require specific nuclear sequences of both parental strains.

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Successful intra- and interspecific mitochondrial transfers were performed by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced protoplast fusion among incompatible strains belonging to the Aspergillus niger species aggregate. The mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of the strains examined were of three main types based on their restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) profiles. mtDNA types 1 and 2 correspond to A. niger and A. tubingensis species, respectively, while type 3 is represented by some Brazilian wild-type isolates (possibly a distinct species or subspecies). mtDNA types 1 and 2 could be further divided into several subgroups (1a-1e and 2a-2f). All these strains, representing different RFLP groups or subgroups, were fully incompatible with respect to nuclear complementation. The transfer experiments were carried out under selection pressure, using a mitochondrial oligomycin-resistant mutant of mtDNA type 1a as donor. Following fusion mitochondrial oligomycin-resistant progenies were recovered in the presence of oligomycin by selecting for the nuclear phenotypes of the oligomycin-sensitive recipient strains. All attempted transfers were successful, and resulted in different varieties of resistant recombinant mitochondrial progenies at various frequencies. Within the group of strains of mtDNA type 1, the transfer of oligomycin-resistant mitochondria resulted in the appearance of a single recombinant type of RFLP profile in each case. The recombination events were more complex when the transfer of oligomycin resistance occurred between strains representing different species (mtDNA groups 1a-->2 and 1a-->3). A great variety of recombinant mtDNA RFLP profiles appeared. Explanation for this phenomenon are discussed on the basis of preliminary physical mapping data.

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Viruses are common in asexual Aspergilli but not in sexual Aspergilli. We found no viruses in 112 isolates of the sexual Aspergillus nidulans. We have investigated factors that could play a role in preventing the spread of mycoviruses through populations of A. nidulans. Experiments were performed with A. nidulans strains infected with viruses originating from A. niger. Horizontal virus transmission was restricted but not prevented by somatic incompatibility. Viruses were transmitted vertically via conidiospores but not via ascospores. Competition experiments revealed no effect of virus infection on host fitness. Outcrossing was found to limit the spread of viruses significantly more than selfing. It is concluded that the exclusion of viruses from sexual Aspergilli could be due to the formation of new somatic incompatibility groups by sexual recombination.

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Forty Aspergillus japonicus and A. aculeatus strains, most of them wild-type isolates, were examined using various molecular and phenotypic techniques. The rDNAs proved to be invariable (even strains of the species A. aculeatus exhibited the same restriction profile), while the strains could be classified into seven different mtDNA RFLP groups. Hybridisation data suggest that six of these mtDNA types have certain common restriction sites, while mtDNA type 7, which was exhibited by some A. aculeatus strains, probably has quite different mtDNA organisation and their size was smallest among the strains studied. The RAPD technique and isoenzyme analysis revealed some variabilities within these RFLP groups and strain specific features could also be recognised. Carbon source assimilation spectra were found to be very distinctive for strains of A. japonicus, A. aculeatus and A. niger, providing a useful tool for pre-characterising new wild-type isolates of black Aspergilli. Only a limited correlation was observed between the dendrograms based on genotypic and phenotypic characters.

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Thirteen collection strains and field isolates of Aspergillus carbonarius were examined by using various genotypic and phenotypic approaches. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the ribosomal RNA gene cluster and the mitochondrial DNA of the strains revealed only slight variations, except for one field isolate (IN7), which exhibited completely different ribosomal RNA gene cluster and mitochondrial DNA patterns. The mitochondrial DNAs of these strains were found to be much larger (45 to 57 kb) than those found earlier in the A. niger aggregate. Strain-specific characters could be detected by the random amplified polymorphic DNA technique. Isoenzyme analysis and examination of carbon source utilisation patterns of the strains also revealed some intraspecific variability, though much smaller than that observed by using DNA-based techniques. The dendrograms constructed based on genotypic and phenotypic data suggest that strain IN7 might represent a new subspecies of A. carbonarius.

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One hundred and fifty-seven strains belonging to Aspergillus section Nigri were tested for ochratoxin A production using three different methods: a relatively new immunochemical method based on an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The monoclonal antibody-based ELISA technique was successfully used to screen for low levels of ochratoxin A in the black Aspergilli without concentrating the culture filtrates. The results were confirmed by TLC and HPLC analysis and chemical derivatization. These latter methods required concentrated filtrates. Ochratoxin A was detected in the culture filtrates of five of the 12 A. carbonarius strains, none of the 45 A. japonicus strains and three of the 100 isolates in the A. niger aggregate (A. foetidus, A. awamori and A. niger.

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The mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) and the ribosomal repeat unit (ribosomal DNA, rDNA) of black Aspergillus isolates collected in various parts of the world were examined. Wide-ranging mtDNA variation was observed in natural populations of the Aspergillus niger aggregate. Most isolates were classifiable as A. niger or Aspergillus tubingensis according to their rDNA and mtDNA patterns. The mtDNA variation was distributed unevenly in the populations studied. The mtDNAs of most of the isolates collected in Australia were of the A. tubingensis type, with an unexpectedly high degree of variation, while the rDNA of these isolates exhibited the same A. tubingensis pattern as that of isolates from other locations. Some other local populations displayed very little polymorphism in their mtDNA and rDNA. Hybridization experiments in which cloned A. niger and Aspergillus nidulans mtDNA fragments were used revealed that the two main mtDNA groups corresponding to A. niger and A. tubingensis are more distantly related than concluded earlier. Six of the 13 Brazilian isolates examined exhibited mtDNA and rDNA types different from those of all the other strains and could not be classified into the above species. Classical taxonomic examination of these strains is in progress.

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Double-stranded RNA bands were detected electrophoretically in about 7% of natural isolates and in 13 of 51 collection strains belonging in section Nigri of the genus Aspergillus. The identity of these bands was proved by S1 nuclease and RNase treatment. Most of the virus-containing natural isolates came from Indonesia. Electron microscopic examination of the strains revealed the presence of virus-like particles in the mycelia of the strains examined. All of the virus-like particles were isometric and their size was around 30-35 nm, while some Indonesian isolates also contained virus-like particles in the size range 23-25 nm. It was possible to cure some of these strains of virus-like particles by mutagenic treatment. The four strains tested lost their virus-like particles and also their 'arginine-proline leaky' phenotype and became prototrophic. Virus transfer was possible among these four strains by protoplast fusion. It also proved possible to transfer mycoviruses into a more distantly related Aspergillus tubingensis strain by prolonged incubation of the polyethylene glycol treated protoplasts in osmotically stabilized medium. In spite of the finding that all Aspergillus foetidus and both Aspergillus heteromorphus strains examined contained double-stranded RNA segments and virus-like particles, no phenotypes related to the presence of these VLPs have been observed so far.

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A comparison of interspecific hybrids within the Aspergillus nidulans species group was made by isoenzyme analysis. The gel electrophoretic patterns of the parental species were distinct for most of the enzymes tested. The hybrids were distinguishable from their parents by isoenzyme patterns. The appearance of novel bands in all the interspecific hybrids indicated that nuclear fusion could have occurred. In most hybrids the appearance of the parental bands showed nonpreferential, partial chromosome loss or repressive interaction between the genomes. The isoenzyme composition of the haploid segregants of the Aspergillus nidulans x Aspergillus rugulosus hybrid differed for some of the enzymes studied from that of the hybrid, suggesting that during segregation further interaction of the chromosomes took place. The results indicate a certain degree of genetic homology among the members of the Aspergillus nidulans species group.

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