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OBJECTIVE: Takayasu arteritis (TAK) is a rare chronic granulomatous vasculitis that affects large vessels and usually begins in women of childbearing age, so it is not uncommon for pregnancies to occur in these patients. However, there is limited information about these pregnancies, with reports of adverse maternal and obstetric outcomes. The objective of this study is to evaluate adverse maternal, fetal and neonatal events in pregnant patients with TA. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study with retrospective data collection. We reviewed 22 pregnancies in 18 patients with TAK, according to the American College of Rheumatology criteria, that were followed up in a high-risk prenatal clinic specialized in systemic autoimmune diseases and thrombophilia (PrAT) at Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto, from 1998 to 2021. RESULTS: In twenty-two pregnancies, the mean age of patients was 28.09 years and the mean duration disease was 10.9 years. Of the 18 patients with TAK studied, only one had the diagnosis during pregnancy and had active disease. All other patients had a previous diagnosis of TAK and only 3 had disease activity during pregnancy. Twelve patients (66.6%) had previous systemic arterial hypertension and eleven (61.1%) had renal involvement. Among maternal complications, eight patients (36.3%) developed preeclampsia and six (27.2%) had uncontrolled blood pressure without proteinuria, while 10 (45%) had puerperal complications. Four (18.1%) births were premature, all due to severe preeclampsia and eight newborns (34.7%) were small for gestational age. When all maternal and fetal/neonatal outcomes included in this study were considered, only 6 (27.2%) pregnancies were uneventful. CONCLUSION: Although there were no maternal deaths or pregnancy losses in this study, the number of adverse events was considerably high. Hypertensive disorders and small for gestational age newborns were more common than general population, while the number of patients with active disease was low. These findings suggest that pregnancies in patients with TAK still have several complications and a high-risk prenatal care and delivery are necessary for these patients.

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Abstract Objective Takayasu arteritis (TAK) is a rare chronic granulomatous vasculitis that affects large vessels and usually begins in women of childbearing age, so it is not uncommon for pregnancies to occur in these patients. However, there is limited information about these pregnancies, with reports of adverse maternal and obstetric outcomes. The objective of this study is to evaluate adverse maternal, fetal and neonatal events in pregnant patients with TA. Methods This is a cross-sectional study with retrospective data collection. We reviewed 22 pregnancies in 18 patients with TAK, according to the American College of Rheumatology criteria, that were followed up in a high-risk prenatal clinic specialized in systemic autoimmune diseases and thrombophilia (PrAT) at Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto, from 1998 to 2021. Results In twenty-two pregnancies, the mean age of patients was 28.09 years and the mean duration disease was 10.9 years. Of the 18 patients with TAK studied, only one had the diagnosis during pregnancy and had active disease. All other patients had a previous diagnosis of TAK and only 3 had disease activity during pregnancy. Twelve patients (66.6%) had previous systemic arterial hypertension and eleven (61.1%) had renal involvement. Among maternal complications, eight patients (36.3%) developed preeclampsia and six (27.2%) had uncontrolled blood pressure without proteinuria, while 10 (45%) had puerperal complications. Four (18.1%) births were premature, all due to severe preeclampsia and eight newborns (34.7%) were small for gestational age. When all maternal and fetal/neonatal outcomes included in this study were considered, only 6 (27.2%) pregnancies were uneventful. Conclusion Although there were no maternal deaths or pregnancy losses in this study, the number of adverse events was considerably high. Hypertensive disorders and small for gestational age newborns were more common than general population, while the number of patients with active disease was low. These findings suggest that pregnancies in patients with TAK still have several complications and a high-risk prenatal care and delivery are necessary for these patients.

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OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze the occurrence and risk factors associated with infections during pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study using the data of pregnant women who were followed up between 2011 and 2018 at a university hospital. RESULTS: The data of 221 pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus were analyzed. The incidence of infections was 22.6% (50/221), with the urinary tract being the most frequent site of infection (32/221, 14.5%) followed by the respiratory tract (15/221, 6.8%). The bivariate analysis showed that active disease, hematological systemic lupus erythematosus, reduced complement, and use of prednisone ≥5 and ≥10 mg increased the chance of infection during early pregnancy (p=0.05, p=0.04, p=0.003, p=0.008, and p=0.02, respectively), while disease activity and anti-DNA positivity increased it at the end of pregnancy (p=0.03 and p=0.04, respectively). Prednisone at a dose ≥5 mg increased the chance of infection in the beginning (p=0.01) and at the end of pregnancy (p=0.008). Multivariate analysis showed that increasing the dose of prednisone from 5 to 10 mg tripled the chance of developing infections in pregnant women with lupus (p=0.02). CONCLUSION: The study showed an increased chance of infections in pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus and it was associated with the use of prednisone.

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SUMMARY OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze the occurrence and risk factors associated with infections during pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study using the data of pregnant women who were followed up between 2011 and 2018 at a university hospital. RESULTS: The data of 221 pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus were analyzed. The incidence of infections was 22.6% (50/221), with the urinary tract being the most frequent site of infection (32/221, 14.5%) followed by the respiratory tract (15/221, 6.8%). The bivariate analysis showed that active disease, hematological systemic lupus erythematosus, reduced complement, and use of prednisone ≥5 and ≥10 mg increased the chance of infection during early pregnancy (p=0.05, p=0.04, p=0.003, p=0.008, and p=0.02, respectively), while disease activity and anti-DNA positivity increased it at the end of pregnancy (p=0.03 and p=0.04, respectively). Prednisone at a dose ≥5 mg increased the chance of infection in the beginning (p=0.01) and at the end of pregnancy (p=0.008). Multivariate analysis showed that increasing the dose of prednisone from 5 to 10 mg tripled the chance of developing infections in pregnant women with lupus (p=0.02). CONCLUSION: The study showed an increased chance of infections in pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus and it was associated with the use of prednisone.

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OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to analyse the frequency of premature rupture of membranes (PROMs) among 190 women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) followed up at the Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto from 2011 to 2018 and to review the literature on PROM in patients with SLE. METHODS: A cohort study of SLE patients was conducted by analysing the following variables: sociodemographic characteristics, clinical manifestations of lupus, modified disease activity index for pregnancy, drugs used during pregnancy, intercurrent maternal infections and obstetric outcomes. Additionally, seven electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Scielo, Scielo Brazil, Virtual Health Library Regional Portal and Google Scholar) were systematically searched. The search was updated on 3 February 2020. RESULTS: Infections (relative risk (RR): 3.26, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.5-6.7, p = .001), history of serositis (RR: 2.59, 95% CI: 1.31-5.11, p = .006) and anti-RNP positivity (RR: 3.08, 95% CI: 1.39-6.78, p = .005) were associated risk factors for PROM, while anti-RNP positivity (RR: 3.37, 95% CI: 1.35-8.40; p = .009) were associated with premature PROM (PPROM). The prevalence of PROM and PPROM was 28.7% and 12.9%, respectively. In the systematic review, the prevalence of PROM and PPROM was 2.7%-35% (I2 = 87.62%) and 2.8%-20% (I2 = 79.56%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: PROM, both at term and preterm, occurs more frequently in women with lupus than in the general population. A history of serositis, anti-RN, infections and immunosuppression during pregnancy may increase the susceptibility to PROM. The systematic review did not find any study with the main objective of evaluating PROM/PPROM in women with lupus.

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OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential impact of irreversible damage accrual in women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and adverse maternal and/or fetal/neonatal outcomes. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study with SLE pregnant patients was carried out from January 2011 to January 2020 at the Hospital University Pedro Ernesto (HUPE) of the State University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Irreversible damage was defined according to SLICC/ACR damage index (SDI). The association of SDI on pregnancy outcomes was established by univariate and multivariate regression models and included demographic and clinical variables. RESULTS: This study included data from 260 patients in their first pregnancies after SLE diagnosis, with a quarter of them (67/260) scoring one or more points on SDI at the beginning of prenatal care. These patients presented more frequently adverse maternal events, namely, disease activity during pregnancy (p = 0.004) and puerperium (p = 0.001), active lupus nephritis (p = 0.04), and hospitalizations (p = 0.004), than those with no SDI score. Similarly, the risks of adverse fetal and neonatal outcomes were also higher among the patients with SDI ≥ 1 (59.7% vs 38.3% p = 0.001) even after controlling data for disease activity (SLEPDAI > 4). Patients with SDI ≥ 1 presented more frequently preterm deliveries (46.3% vs 31.6%; p = 0.01), small for gestational age infants (28.3% vs 18.1%; p = 0.04), and neonatal intensive care unit admission (26.9% vs 1.5%; p < 0.001). The multivariate analyses showed that SDI ≥ 1 is an independent risk factor for hospitalization due to obstetric complications (p = 0.0008) and preterm delivery (p = 0.009). CONCLUSION: Pregnant SLE patients who present irreversible damage accrual may have higher risk of maternal and fetal adverse outcomes, independently of disease activity. These results should be validated in further prospective studies.

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OBJECTIVES: To analyse maternal variables associated with occurrence of small for gestational age (SGA) newborns in pregnancies of women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), considering clinical and laboratory characteristics prior to conception, during gestation and comorbidities. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study with SLE pregnant patients and singleton deliveries after 22 weeks. SGA newborn was defined as birth weight below 10th percentile and SLE activity at conception and during gestation was measured using the SLE Pregnancy Disease Activity Index (SLEPDAI). Univariate analysis was employed to evaluate individual influence of demographic and clinical variables on the SGA newborn outcome, while variables with p<0.20 were included in multivariate regression. RESULTS: Among 151 pregnancies, 28 (18.5%) had SGA newborns. History of proliferative nephritis (RR=3.84, CI 1.63-9.3) and positivity for anti-RNP and anti-Sm antibodies (RR=2.67, CI 1.11-6.43; 2.78, CI 1.44-5.32) were more frequent in the study group. Active proliferative nephritis at conception (RR=3.29, CI 1.75-6.18) and during gestation (RR=3.63, CI 1.97-6.71), as well as complement C3 consumption (RR=2.70, CI 1.09-6.67) and venous pulse therapy with methylprednisolone (RR=20.3, CI 2.18-190), were also associated with SGA newborns, the latter being independently associated in multivariate regression. Adverse perinatal outcomes, such as stillbirths (4.3 times) and neonatal intensive care unit admissions (3.2 times), were more frequent among SGA infants. CONCLUSIONS: Active proliferative lupus nephritis during pregnancy was associated with SGA newborns, while its treatment with venous pulse therapy with methylprednisolone may play a significant role in this context. Presence of previous proliferative nephritis, SLEPDAI ≥4, C3 consumption and presence of anti-RNP and anti-Sm antibodies were additional variables associated with SGA newborns in this population.

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OBJECTIVE: To evaluate mean serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), placental growth factor (PlGF), and soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1) in pregnant patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) with inactive disease, active lupus nephritis, and preeclampsia for differential diagnosis between these conditions. METHODS: Pregnant women with SLE, with singleton pregnancies and no other autoimmune diseases, were classified according to disease activity (inactive SLE and active lupus nephritis) and the presence of preeclampsia. Serum samples were collected within 3 weeks of delivery and frozen for subsequent blinded analysis through the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. RESULTS: A total of 71 women were included, with 41 classified as having inactive SLE (group 1; Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Pregnancy Disease Activity Index [SLEPDAI] score <4), 15 with a diagnosis of active lupus nephritis (group 2, SLEPDAI score ≥4, including renal criteria), and 15 with a diagnosis of preeclampsia (group 3). Patients in group 3 had higher mean levels of sFlt-1 and lower mean levels of PlGF compared to groups 1 and 2, both findings with statistical significance. The sFlt-1:PlGF ratio was also significantly higher in patients with preeclampsia, while mean VEGF levels were higher in pregnant woman with active lupus nephritis compared to patients with preeclampsia or inactive SLE. CONCLUSION: Evaluation of serum VEGF, PlGF, and sFlt-1 levels can differentiate between preeclampsia, inactive SLE, and active lupus nephritis during pregnancy.

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OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between treatment and mother-to-child transmission of acute Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy. METHODS: This was a concurrent cohort study of 26 pregnant women diagnosed with acute toxoplasmosis. Transmission of T. gondii to the fetus was characterized by detection of the parasite in the amniotic fluid by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Congenital toxoplasmosis was diagnosed by a positive serological test for IgM, intracranial calcification, chorioretinitis, hydrocephalus, and/or microcephaly in the newborn. RESULTS: There was direct correlation between acute toxoplasmosis and low socioeconomic status and inadequate hygienic/health conditions. The MCT rate in adequately and inadequately treated patients was 17.4% and 33.3%, respectively. PCR analysis of the amniotic fluid was performed for 15 women, with 1 positive result; the pregnant woman was adequately treated, and her infant had no complications. Congenital infection occurred in 4 newborns, who had hydrocephalus, intracranial calcifications, and chorioretinitis. Cerebrospinal fluid alteration was found in 3 of the 16 infants tested. Transmission was more frequent in the third quarter of pregnancy (P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: The rate of mother-to-child transmission of T. gondii is higher in untreated pregnant women and those who acquired the infection later in pregnancy.

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This article describes three complicated cases in rheumatology and pregnancy. The first case elucidates the challenges in treating SLE in conjunction with pulmonary arterial hypertension, while the second case features an SLE-affected pregnancy with development of portal hypertension secondary to portal vein thrombosis related to APS. The third case is a pregnant woman with stable SLE who developed thrombotic microangiopathy caused by atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome, and failed to improve despite multiple measures including biopsy and elective preterm delivery. There are grave and unique challenges for women with autoimmune disease, but adverse outcomes can sometimes be avoided with careful and multidisciplinary medical management. Pre-conception counselling with regard to medications and disease treatment should also include discussion of the advisability of pregnancy, which may be difficult for a patient, but present the best course for optimizing health outcomes.

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The crucial issue for a better pregnancy outcome in women with autoimmune rheumatic diseases is appropriate planning, with counseling of the ideal timing and treatment adaptation. Drugs used to treat rheumatic diseases may interfere with fertility or increase the risk of miscarriages and congenital abnormalities. MTX use post-conception is clearly linked to abortions as well as major birth defects, so it should be stopped 3months before conception. Leflunomide causes abnormalities in animals even in low doses. Although in humans, it does not seem to be as harmful as MTX, when pregnancy is detected in a patient on leflunomide, cholestyramine is given for washout. Sulfasalazine can be used safely and is an option for those patients who were on MTX or leflunomide. Azathioprine is generally the immunosuppressive of choice in many high-risk pregnancy centers because of the safety profile and its steroid-sparing property. Cyclosporine and tacrolimus can also be used as steroid-sparing agents, but experience is smaller. Although prednisone and prednisolone are inactivated in the placenta, we try to limit the dose to the minimal effective one, to prevent side effects. Antimalarials have been broadly studied and are safe during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Among biologic disease modifying anti-rheumatic agents (bDMARD), the anti-TNFs that have been used for longer are the ones with greater experience. The large monoclonal antibodies do not cross the placenta in the first trimester, and after conception, the decision to continue medication should be taken individually. The experience is larger in women with inflammatory bowel diseases, where anti-TNF is generally maintained at least until 30weeks to reduce fetal exposure. Live vaccines should not be administrated to the infant in the first 6months of life. Pregnancy data for rituximab, abatacept, anakinra, tocilizumab, ustekinumab, belimumab, and tofacitinib are limited and their use in pregnancy cannot currently be recommended.

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Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic, multisystemic autoimmune disease that occurs predominantly in women of fertile age. The association of SLE and pregnancy, mainly with active disease and especially with nephritis, has poorer pregnancy outcomes, with increased frequency of preeclampsia, fetal loss, prematurity, growth restriction, and newborns small for gestational age. Therefore, SLE pregnancies are considered high risk condition, should be monitored frequently during pregnancy and delivery should occur in a controlled setting. Pregnancy induces dramatic immune and neuroendocrine changes in the maternal body in order to protect the fetus from immunologic attack and these modifications can be affected by SLE. The risk of flares depends on the level of maternal disease activity in the 6-12 months before conception and is higher in women with repeated flares before conception, in those who discontinue useful medications and in women with active glomerulonephritis at conception. It is a challenge to differentiate lupus nephritis from preeclampsia and, in this context, the angiogenic and antiangiogenic cytokines are promising. Prenatal care of pregnant patients with SLE requires close collaboration between rheumatologist and obstetrician. Planning pregnancy is essential to increase the probability of successful pregnancies.

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Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) comprises of a wide spectrum of clinical and obstetric manifestations linked to the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). APS was described in the context of lupus, and later as an isolated syndrome or primary APS. The presence of aPL, especially the lupus anticoagulant test, is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as fetal death, recurrent early miscarriages, pre-eclampsia, and placental insufficiency, but does not seem to influence infertility. High quality scientific data to support these associations, however, are lacking, and controversies arise about the definition of positive aPL (low vs medium-high titers) or even the definition of the adverse events. This review discusses APS classification criteria and the current debate about it.

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Women with persistently circulating antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) have a higher incidence of recurrent abortions, fetal losses, pre-eclampsia, and placental insufficiency. Current treatment of patients with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) during pregnancy with heparin and aspirin can act by preventing clot formation and improving live birth rates, but other obstetric morbidities remain high, especially in patients with a history of thrombotic events. In addition to the classical thrombotic placental events, other factors involving inflammation and complement activation seem to play a role in certain complications. In this article, we will review how medications interfere in the pathogenic mechanisms of APS, discuss the impact of current recommended treatment on pregnancy morbidity, and analyze new promising therapies.

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BACKGROUND: Takayasu arteritis (TA) is a rare chronic granulomatous inflammatory disease of the aorta and/or its major branches and more frequently affects female patients before menopause. Since persistent inflammation may lead to arterial ischemia, hypertension is an important complication of TA. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate gestational results and complications in patients with TA. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of the medical records of patients with TA admitted to the high risk pregnancy clinic for women with systemic autoimmune diseases at Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto. RESULTS: From 1998 to 2011 we followed 11 pregnancies in 9 patients with TA; the patients' age ranged from 17 to 42 years and disease duration from 2 to 28 years. In 7 of the 11 pregnancies, uncontrolled blood pressure occurred before labor and preeclampsia was diagnosed in one. Two deliveries were preterm, one newborn was treated for sepsis, and four (36%) had intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). CONCLUSIONS: Close monitoring improves the perinatal outcomes in patients with TA who are more prone to develop hypertension, preeclampsia and IUGR. Disease activity was not observed in our group of patients during pregnancy. Coordinated care between the obstetric, rheumatologic and cardiologic teams is the ideal setting to follow pregnant women with TA.

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Recurrent early miscarriages (excluding chromosomal anomalies), late fetal loss, and maternal thrombosis are characteristic of obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Obstetric complications such as preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction, premature delivery, and fetal death also occur in higher frequency in APS patients than in the general population. A high-risk obstetric center is needed for proper evaluation of and intervention with pregnant women with APS. Association with lupus carries additional risk of thrombosis when antiphospholipid antibodies (aPLs) are present. Gestational results with live births are improved to about 80% when antithrombotic therapy is used, but failure in 20% to 30% of the cases despite correct treatment with low-dose aspirin with or without heparin reveals new pathways for pregnancy loss in APS and unmet needs. At the moment, there is no recommendation to investigate patients with infertility for the presence of aPLs.

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BACKGROUND: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) often requires administration of cyclophosphamide (CYC), especially for severe glomerulonephritis. As this disease usually affects young women in reproductive age, pregnancy, though not recommended may occur. The teratogenic effects of this drug make pregnancy prognosis and fetal survival indeterminate. METHODS: We reviewed retrospectively the medical records of five patients with SLE who received inadvertently CYC during pregnancy and analyzed fetal outcome. RESULTS: All patients were exposed at the first trimester. Two patients suffered miscarriages, two went to full term and one presented premature labor. CONCLUSION: In spite of potential successful pregnancies after CYC exposure, this drug has teratogenic effects and prescription must be avoided during the pregnancy period. At the same time, the occurrence of these reported unplanned pregnancies strengthen the need of improving patients' education on pregnancy risks during immunosuppressive treatment.

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O sistema imune inato desempenha papel central na reprodução, tendo as células NK participação marcante. Durante a gravidez, seu comportamento pode esclarecer pontos cruciais na patogênese das complicações que podem ocorrer em gestantes com LES. OBJETIVO: Quantificar as células NK circulantes e sua viabilidade em gestantes com LES. MATERIAL E MÉTODOS: Avaliaram-se amostras de sangue de quatro grupos de dez pacientes cada: 1 GLES: Gestantes com LES; 2 PLES: Pacientes com LES não gestantes; 3 Gcontroles: Gestantes controles; 4 Controles: Mulheres não gestantes saudáveis. Em todas as pacientes, a quantidade e a viabilidade das células NK foram medidas por citometria de fluxo, assim como por apoptose total por coloração para anexina V e iodeto de propidium. RESULTADOS: Devido à variabilidade dos resultados, a mediana de cada grupo foi utilizada para avaliar: porcentagem CD56+ [GLES (0,10), PLES (0,12), Gcontroles (0,15), Controles (0,08)]; apoptose total [GLES (0,06), PLES (0,04), Gcontroles (0,11), Controles (0,11)]. Os resultados da contagem de células vivas tiveram baixa variabilidade, por isso média e desvio-padrão foram utilizados para comparação: [GLES (0,91 ± 0,06), PLES (0,95 ± 0,03), Gcontroles (0,86 ± 0,11), Controles (0,88 ± 0,08). CONCLUSÃO: Apesar de não terem alcançado valor de significância estatística, o percentual de apoptose total nos grupos com LES foi menor que o dos controles, e a porcentagem de células vivas foi maior. Isso sugere que, em pacientes com LES, grávidas ou não, as células NK têm vida útil prolongada (ou tem turnover menor/diferente), o que indica um maior estímulo imune, fazendo com que as células NK levem mais tempo para ativar o processo de apoptose.

The innate immune system plays an important role in reproduction, with marked involvement of NK cells. These cells behavior during pregnancy may clarify crucial points in the pathogenesis of complications that may occur in pregnant women with SLE. OBJECTIVE: To measure the amount of circulating NK cells and their viability in pregnant SLE patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Blood samples from four groups of ten patients each were evaluated: 1. GLES: Pregnant SLE patients; 2. PLES: Non-pregnant SLE patients; 3. Gcontrols: Pregnant controls; 4. Controls: Healthy non-pregnant women. In all patients the amount and viability of NK cells was measured by flow cytometry, as well as the total apoptosis by annexin V and propidium iodite staining. RESULTS: Due to the great variability, median of each group was used for evaluation: CD56+ count [GLES (0.10), PLES (0.12), Gcontrols (0.15), Controls (0.08)]; total apoptosis (addition of initial and late apoptosis to total number of dead cells) [GLES (0.06), PLES (0.04), Gcontrols (0.11), Controls (0.11)]. The results for live cells count had low variability, so the averages and standard deviations were used for comparisons: [GLES (0.91±0.06), PLES (0.95±0.03), Gcontrols (0.86±0.11), Controls (0.88+0.08)]. CONCLUSION: Although not statistically significant, the total apoptosis in the SLE groups was lower than in the control groups, and the live cell count was higher. This suggests that in SLE patients, pregnant or not, the NK cells have a prolonged life cycle (or have a lower/different turnover), and that there may be a higher immune stimulus making the NK cells take longer to activate the apoptosis process.

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We describe a 29-year-old pregnant woman at 16 weeks gestation and antiphospholipid antibodies who developed nephrotic syndrome with massive hematuria. Renal biopsy evidenced chronic glomerular lesions of ischemic nature without proliferative changes and immune deposits suggestive of lupus nephritis. Anticoagulation was initiated, along supportive measures, and the patient recovered completely. This case demonstrates that chronic renal lesions of antiphospholipid syndrome may present with marked clinical manifestation including hypertension, massive proteinuria and hematuria, resembling the course of acute thrombotic microangiopathy and/or lupus nephritis.

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