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The engagement of both scientists and veterinarians in strengthening biosecurity systems is of paramount importance to ensure resilience and sustainability. Such commitment from scientists and veterinarians begins during their university education, is nurtured by the examples set by their mentors, and continues into their careers through professional development and the wisdom gained from experience. Resilient and sustainable biosecurity systems also require an organisational culture that encourages, recognises and rewards scientists and veterinarians who are committed to biosecurity education, research, outreach and preparedness. At present, such involvement is complicated by the range of definitions of biosecurity used in the life sciences and veterinary medicine, and by the various international organisations with biosecurity responsibilities. Biosecurity represents both a public and a private good. However, the priority given to biosecurity education, research, outreach and implementation differs widely among the public, private and academic sectors. The public sector has the broadest engagement and the broadest mandate for biosecurity. The private sector's approach to biosecurity is governed by business decisions and whether or not they produce consumer goods. In the academic sector, although biosecurity education is gaining increased attention in universities, there are disincentives to research in this field. Strategies for encouraging greater involvement from scientists and veterinarians include agreeing on an inclusive definition of biosecurity, developing teaching materials and experiential learning approaches for use in undergraduate curricula and postgraduate professional development, train-the-trainer programmes, increased involvement of government scientists and veterinarians in university education and professional development, and the fostering of public-private-academic partnerships around shared interests in biosecurity education, research, outreach and implementation.

La participation des chercheurs et des vétérinaires au renforcement des systèmes de biosûreté est d'une importance capitale pour garantir la résilience et la durabilité de ces systèmes. Les chercheurs et les vétérinaires qui s'engagent dans ce domaine le font dès leur formation universitaire, grâce à l'émulation de leurs mentors, et cet engagement se poursuit tout au long de leur carrière grâce au perfectionnement professionnel et à la sagesse acquise avec l'expérience. La durabilité et la résilience des systèmes de biosûreté nécessitent également une culture organisationnelle qui encourage, reconnaisse et récompense les chercheurs et les vétérinaires qui s'engagent dans des activités d'enseignement, de recherche, de vulgarisation et de préparation dans le domaine de la biosûreté. À l'heure actuelle, cette participation est rendue plus complexe par les nombreuses définitions données à la biosûreté dans les sciences du vivant et en médecine vétérinaire, ainsi que par le grand nombre d'organisations internationales compétentes en matière de biosûreté. La biosûreté constitue à la fois un bien public et un bien privé. Néanmoins, suivant que l'on se trouve dans le secteur public, privé ou universitaire, la priorité accordée à l'enseignement, à la recherche, à la vulgarisation et à la mise en œuvre de la biosûreté varie considérablement. Le secteur public compte avec la participation la plus large et détient le mandat le plus vaste en matière de biosûreté. L'approche du secteur privé est gouvernée par des décisions commerciales et dépend de la possibilité ou non de produire des biens commercialisables relevant de la biosûreté. Dans le secteur universitaire, l'enseignement de la biosûreté prend de l'ampleur mais certains facteurs découragent la recherche dans ce domaine. Parmi les stratégies permettant d'accroître la participation des chercheurs et des vétérinaires, l'auteur cite la mise au point d'une définition concertée et inclusive de la biosûreté ; le développement de matériels didactiques et de méthodes d'apprentissage par l'expérience destinés à l'enseignement supérieur et à la formation professionnelle ; la mise en place d'une offre de formation des formateurs ; une meilleure participation des chercheurs et des vétérinaires du service public dans l'enseignement supérieur et la formation professionnelle ; enfin, la promotion de partenariats de recherche public-privé autour de sujets d'intérêt commun relatifs à la biosûreté et à l'enseignement, la recherche, la vulgarisation et la mise en œuvre dans ce domaine.

La participación de científicos y veterinarios en el refuerzo de los sistemas de seguridad biológica reviste cardinal importancia para asegurar la resiliencia y la sostenibilidad. Esta participación, que empieza en el momento de la formación universitaria, se ve impulsada por los ejemplos que ofrece el profesorado y continúa a lo largo de toda la carrera gracias al perfeccionamiento profesional y a las enseñanzas que depara la experiencia. Para que los sistemas de seguridad biológica sean duraderos y resilientes se precisa también una cultura organizativa que aliente, reconozca y recompense a los científicos y veterinarios que intervienen en labores de pedagogía, investigación, difusión y preparación en relación con la seguridad biológica. A día de hoy, esta participación se ve complicada por las dispares definiciones que se dan de «seguridad biológica¼ en las ciencias de la vida y la medicina veterinaria y por la existencia de varias organizaciones internacionales con responsabilidades en la materia. La seguridad biológica representa un bien de interés a la vez público y privado. No obstante, los sectores público, privado y universitario no coinciden ni de lejos en el grado de prioridad que otorgan a la enseñanza, la investigación, la difusión y la aplicación de la seguridad biológica. El sector público exhibe la participación y el mandato más amplios en la materia. Los planteamientos del sector privado al respecto responden a decisiones empresariales y a su utilidad, o no, para traducirse en bienes de consumo. En los medios universitarios, si bien se presta cada vez más atención a la enseñanza de la seguridad biológica, hay factores que desincentivan la investigación en la materia. Las estrategias para alentar una mayor participación de científicos y veterinarios pasan especialmente por consensuar una definición integradora de «seguridad biológica¼, elaborar material pedagógico y métodos de aprendizaje experimental e introducirlos en los programas de estudios universitarios y de perfeccionamiento profesional de posgrado, instituir programas de formación del profesorado, impulsar una mayor intervención de científicos y veterinarios del sector público en la enseñanza universitaria y de perfeccionamiento profesional y potenciar la colaboración público-privada en la universidad en torno a temas de interés común relacionados con la enseñanza, la investigación, la difusión y la aplicación de la seguridad biológica.

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Public policy decisions underlie society's response to current animal health issues ranging from emerging diseases and public health threats to food safety concerns and sustainable animal agriculture strategies. Despite strong calls for "science-based" decisions, animal health policy most commonly emerges at the interface of science and politics. Too often scientists' disdain for politics limits their involvement in formulating policy. By contrast, epidemiologists are ideally qualified to bring scientific skills to complex policy issues through analytical, macro-epidemiological approaches that consider the economic, legal, and cultural context of policy issues as well as the biological and medical aspects. Risk analysis provides a systematic approach to evaluating animal health issues and comparing policy options. Capturing these opportunities for applied epidemiology requires an understanding of the policy-making process as well as the basic principles of epidemiology. Furthermore, epidemiology training programs must incorporate communications skill building and experiential learning opportunities in a team environment.

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INTRODUCTION: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and usefulness of the Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine's Center for Government and Corporate Veterinary Medicine (CGCVM or Center) as a national resource. METHODOLOGY: Questionnaires were mailed to graduates of the Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine (VMRCVM) from the classes of 1993 through 1997, as well as to graduates of other veterinary schools in the United States and Canada in the classes of 1994 through 1997 who had completed externships with the Center. Agencies and corporations that had hosted student clerkships in the 1997/1998 academic year and Deans of each veterinary school that has utilized the Center for student clerkships were also surveyed by mail. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that the Center for Government and Corporate Veterinary Medicine is a valuable national resource for veterinary students interested in public practice veterinary medicine and for veterinarians already in the work force seeking career advancement and/or career redirection.

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OBJECTIVE: To assess veterinary extension in the United States as perceived by veterinary extension personnel. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: Extension veterinarians in the United States. PROCEDURE: 2 surveys were designed and mailed to extension veterinarians listed by the USDA and the American Association of Extension Veterinarians. RESULTS: 34 states had > or = 1 extension veterinarian. The majority (> 60%) of extension veterinarians did not commit time to resident education and were not involved in research activities. Paradoxically, 23% of responding extension veterinarians did not report extension work. Programs for food animal producers, horse owners, and companion animal owners were provided by 100, 63, and 37% of states, respectively. Continuing education (CE) programs were provided for food animal veterinarians, equine veterinarians, and companion animal veterinarians by 96, 63, and 52% of states, respectively. Challenges facing veterinary extension included limited recognition of veterinary extension activities by universities, lack of university personnel to support CE programs, and decreased support for companion animal extension programs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Extension veterinarians need to identify and clearly articulate the mission of veterinary extension, develop more collaborative programs across regions, and continue to serve as catalysts to bring diverse constituents together. Extension veterinarians must distinguish their mission not solely as information transfer, which can be accomplished in a variety of ways outside of extension, but as a coherent and consistent program of education and policy developed on a national level and distributed locally.

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Early respiratory disease complex (ERDC) is a term coined to describe an acute disease characterized by depression, respiratory distress, and increased mortality in 2-to-3-wk-old broiler chickens. Postmortem lesions include airsacculitis, fibrinous pericarditis, and perihepatitis. Colisepticemia is the primary cause of death. In order to investigate the association between ERDC and farm management factors, a retrospective case-control study was conducted by collecting data covering a 6-mo period (January-June 1997) from four broiler integrators on the Delmarva peninsula. Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses revealed that flock size was positively associated (P = 0.02) and layout time was negatively associated (P = 0.05) with ERDC.

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The epidemiology of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Northern Ireland from 1988, when it was first confirmed, to the end of 1995 is described. All cases of BSE were subjected to a detailed epidemiological investigation, complemented by data from the national animal health records on every bovine animal. Data are presented on 1680 cases. Many of the epidemiological features of the disease were similar to those reported in Great Britain, but the incidence in Northern Ireland was approximately one-tenth that in Great Britain. The epidemic increased to a peak of 56 cases per month in January 1994, and decreased to nine cases in December 1995. Statutory intervention banning the use of meat and bone meal in ruminant feed in January 1989 has produced a marked and continuing reduction in the incidence. The majority of the cases were in Northern Ireland cattle, but 83 cases were imported from Great Britain and five from the Republic of Ireland. Many of the key epidemiological features have remained constant throughout the epidemic: the greater incidence of BSE in dairy herds than in beef suckler herds, the low within-herd incidence, the variation in incidence with herd size, the breed distribution, the distribution of the reported clinical signs and the proportion of purchased cases. Although the source of the BSE epidemic in Northern Ireland has not been established conclusively, the evidence suggests that the importation of meat and bone meal and protein concentrates from Great Britain may have been responsible.

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In a recent study of female veterinarians, a subgroup of health professionals growing rapidly in number, the authors employed a mixed-mode survey design in targeting the cohort of women graduating from all US veterinary colleges during the 11-year period 1970-80 (n = 2,997). The questionnaire elicited information on a variety of health and occupational factors and required 35 minutes on average to complete. In the first stage, a modified version of Dillman's Total Design Method for mailed, self-administered questionnaires was employed, yielding a response rate of 82.9%. In the second stage, a telephone interview of all mail non-respondents was attempted, yielding a response rate here of only 30.1%, but increasing the overall response rate among those contacted to 90.2%. Non-respondents differed little from mail (early) or telephone (late) respondents with respect to year of graduation and geographic region of veterinary college attendance. Gentle probing of telephone non-respondents suggested the personal nature of some questions and the amount of time required to answer all questions were the main reasons they chose not to participate. It therefore appears that conventional survey techniques may be successfully employed in health studies of health professionals, particularly if issues of great concern to the target population are addressed.

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Lack of a standardized information technology management strategy has resulted in state and federal information systems evolving separately, rather than in tandem. Absence of an information management strategy will eventually affect regulatory program management, epidemiologic research, and domestic and international livestock trade. Producers will ultimately pay the price for the lack of regulatory coordination of US animal health and disease information. The longer the development of state and federal information technology management strategies is postponed, the more cost-, labor-, and time-intensive correcting the deficiency will be. Development of a national information resources management environment is the first step in constructing state and federal information technology strategies.

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Pseudorabies (PR) outbreak-investigation forms from 10 states having the most PR-infected herds were evaluated for agreement in question response-data type, information intent, and outbreak information categories. A question randomly selected from an investigation form had 0.6304 probability of being unique to a single state, and 0.0062 probability of being common to all states. Analysis of outbreak forms, on the basis of information intent, revealed that the probability of a randomly selected question being derived from an information category unique to a single state was 0.0323, whereas the probability of a question being derived from an information category shared by all states was 0.1935. A telephone survey revealed that state PR control officials did not believe additional research on between-herd spread of PR was necessary to successfully complete the eradication program. However, officials believed a better understanding of PR risk factors would enhance program effectiveness and build producer confidence.

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Continued growth in international trade and the developing concepts of zoning and risk assessment demand effective assessment of national surveillance and monitoring systems for animal health. The ideal national epidemiological delivery system incorporates surveillance for disease agents, host monitoring and environmental assessment. An extensive veterinary infrastructure is necessary to support the ideal epidemiological delivery system. While the full spectrum of epidemiological services is represented worldwide, a standardized approach to assessing national surveillance and monitoring systems is proposed, in order to meet the emerging demand for scientifically-based import regulations.

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Macroepidemiology is the study of all inputs into national patterns and determinants of disease, including economic, social, and political factors. Macroepidemiology complements and enhances the usefulness of quantitative risk assessment by increasing risk communication and understanding among policy-makers and the affected public. Macroepidemiological applications include qualitative risk assessment, mapping of relative risk within a country and assessment of surveillance systems.

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A retrospective study of the results of 12,549 agar gel immunodiffusion tests for bovine leukemia virus, conducted on 1,296 dairy bulls over an 8-year period, was performed to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of the test. The number of tests performed on each bull ranged from 5 to 35, with a mean of 9.7 tests per bull. Bulls were categorized by their agar gel immunodiffusion test responses; 1,069 (82.5%) were noninfected and 227 (17.5%) were infected. Eighteen false-positive results were reported from the noninfected bulls. Test specificity was estimated to be 99.8%. Thirty-one false-negative results were reported from the infected bulls. Test sensitivity was estimated to be 98.5%. Fifty-six bulls had 1 or more positive responses when less than 6 months old. In 26 (46%), these results were thought to be attributable to colostral immunity.

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Following the identification of meat and bonemeal as the most likely source of exposure for the occurrence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Great Britain case-control studies were initiated to investigate this hypothesis. These involved a comparison of the consumption of specific proprietary calf feedstuffs, and whether or not meat and bonemeal had been included, between animals born in 1983-84 in BSE-unaffected herds and confirmed cases of BSE also born in 1983-84. The feeding of proprietary concentrates containing meat and bonemeal was found to be a statistically significant risk factor for the occurrence of BSE. These studies therefore support the initial hypothesis that BSE occurred as a result of exposure to a scrapie-like agent via meat and bonemeal.

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Following the identification of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the British cattle population in 1986 epidemiological studies were launched. This paper provides an updated account of the epidemiological features of BSE from 1985, when the first cases, based on clinical histories, occurred, until 1990. The number of cases up to December 1989 represents an annual incidence of 3.9 confirmed cases per 1000 adult animals in Great Britain. Many more dairy herds were affected than beef suckler herds, a difference attributable to the difference in feeding practices between the two herd types. The geographical variation in incidence previously described has persisted with the highest incidence in the south and east of England. Other features of the epidemiology, including the low within-herd incidence, remained unaltered from the earlier findings. The results support the previously suggested hypothesis that the outbreak of BSE was due to the sudden exposure of the cattle population to a scrapie-like agent in 1981/82. There was no evidence of direct transmission between cattle during the period considered.

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This study describes the epidemiological features of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Northern Ireland where the first case occurred in November 1988. They were very similar to those observed in Great Britain except that the annual incidence of BSE in 1990 in Northern Ireland, 2.3 confirmed cases per 10,000 adult cows, was approximately one 10th of that in Great Britain. The findings were also consistent with the current hypothesis that affected cattle had been exposed to a scrapie-like agent via cattle feedstuffs containing ruminant-derived protein. However, a preliminary investigation of the potential sources of infection for cattle in Northern Ireland did not provide any conclusive evidence.

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Nine dairy herds (mean size, 149 cows) with bulk-tank milk somatic cell counts of less than 300,000 cells/ml and greater than 80% of cows with Dairy Herd Improvement Association linear somatic cell counts less than or equal to 4 were selected for study. Each herd was monitored for 12 consecutive months. Duplicate quarter-milk specimens were collected from each cow for bacteriologic culturing at beginning of lactation, cessation of lactation, and at the time of each clinical episode of mastitis. Streptococcus agalactiae was never isolated and Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from less than 1% of all quarters. There were 554 episodes of clinical mastitis. During the year of study, the incidence rate of clinical mastitis varied from 15.6 to 63.7% of cows among the 9 herds. Mean costs per cow per year in herd for mastitis prevention were: $10 for paper towels, $3 for nonlactating cow treatment, and $10 for teat disinfectants. Mean cost associated with clinical mastitis was $107/episode. Approximately 84% ($90) of the costs attributed to a clinical episode were associated with decreased milk production and nonsalable milk. Costs of medication and professional veterinary fees per clinical episode varied significantly among the 9 herds. Three of the herds did not have a veterinarian treat a clinical episode of mastitis during the year of study even though 2 of these herds had the first and third highest incidence rates of clinical mastitis. When calculated on a per cow in herd basis, mean costs of $40/cow/year were attributed to clinical mastitis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

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A telephone survey was conducted of 50 randomly selected Ohio-licensed veterinarians engaged in dairy practice. The survey's purpose was to determine the extent of mastitis control services offered by practitioners and to assess their utilization of milk somatic cell count (SCC) data on individual cows available from the Dairy Herd Improvement Association (DHIA). During the preceding year, 96% (48/50) of practitioners surveyed had performed bacteriologic culture of milk samples. Practitioners were twice as likely to have performed culture on milk from mastitic cows that failed to respond to treatment as they were to have performed culture for purposes of identifying pathogen trends within a herd. Veterinarians in predominantly dairy practices were more likely to have completed bacteriologic examination of milk in their own laboratories than were veterinarians who were engaged in less than 50% dairy practice (P = 0.016). Most veterinarians (83%) reported that coagulase test results were available or that Staphylococcus aureus was differentiated from other staphylococcal species. Streptococcus agalactiae was not differentiated from other streptococcal species by 35% of practitioners surveyed. For veterinarians with clients enrolled in the DHIA, 91% (43/47) reported looking at, discussing, or otherwise using the DHIA records. Eighty-one percent (35/43) of veterinarians who had clients using services from the DHIA reported that clients also received individual cow milk SCC results. Veterinarians engaged in predominantly, dairy practice expressed a greater familiarity with the linear score method of SCC reporting than did veterinarians whose practices were less than 50% dairy (P = 0.085); however, both groups reported a preference for raw SCC data.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

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