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Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were employed in the aqueous electrodeposition of nickel and cadmium for battery metal recycling. The electrowinning of mixed Ni-Cd metal ion recycling solutions demonstrated that cadmium with a purity of over 99% could be selectively extracted while leaving the nickel in the solution. Two types of CNFs were evaluated: negatively charged CNFs (a-CNF) obtained through acid hydrolysis (-75 µeq. g-1) and positively charged CNFs (q-CNF) functionalized with quaternary ammonium groups (+85 µeq. g-1). The inclusion of CNFs in the Ni-Cd electrolytes induced growth of cm-sized dendrites in conditions where dendrites were otherwise not observed, or increased the degree of dendritic growth when it was already present to a lesser extent. The augmented dendritic growth correlated with an increase in deposition yields of up to 30%. Additionally, it facilitated the formation of easily detachable dendritic structures, enabling more efficient processing on a large scale and enhancing the recovery of the toxic cadmium metal. Regardless of the charged nature of the CNFs, both negatively and positively charged CNFs led to a significant formation of protruding cadmium dendrites. When deposited separately, dendritic growth and increased deposition yields remained consistent for the cadmium metal. However, dendrites were not observed during the deposition of nickel; instead, uniformly deposited layers were formed, albeit at lower yields (20%), when positively charged CNFs were present. This paper explores the potential of utilizing cellulose and its derivatives as the world's largest biomass resource to enhance battery metal recycling processes.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate three-dimensional (3D) stereophotogrammetry based methods for measuring craniofacial asymmetry in patients with congenital muscular torticollis (CMT). This study focused on the differences in craniofacial asymmetry in CMT patients compared with a healthy control group using 3D photographs. The difference in facial asymmetry between the CMT group and control group was measured using two methods to analyse facial asymmetry in distinct anatomical regions: (1) mirroring and surface-based registration to analyse the overall facial asymmetry; (2) the 'coherent point drift' based method. Thirty-one patients with CMT and 84 controls were included in the study. A statistically significant difference was found between the CMT patients and a healthy control group. The measured facial asymmetry for the CMT group was 1.71±0.66mm and for the controls 0.46±0.14mm (P<0.05). A significant difference was found in surface ratio for the cheek, nose and the forehead region (P<0.05). With its minimal invasive character, 3D stereophotogrammetry is a useful tool in measuring the facial asymmetry associated with CMT and to quantify the treatment-induced facial changes. In the future 3D facial data could be used to create a ranking-scale to categorize the severity of facial asymmetry.

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OBJECTIVES: The regulation of genes involved in glutamatergic function is thought to be a critical for many central nervous system processes including memory, learning, synaptic maintenance, and many pathological states. As part of a larger survey into the key regulatory elements in genes of neuro-psychiatric interest, we sought to identify the promoter regions of genes in this broad family, and to identify sequence variants that alter gene expression. METHODS: Mutation analysis was carried out on the promoters of 20 genes encoding 13 glutamate receptor subunits, four transporters and three metabolizing enzymes using denaturing high performance liquid chromatography. Thirty-nine different promoter haplotypes were cloned into a luciferase reporter gene vector and tested for differences in their ability to drive transcription in both HEK293t and TE671 cell lines. RESULTS: We have identified a total of 48 sequence variants in six glutamate receptor subunits, four glutamate transporters and two enzymes. Interestingly, seven promoter sequences gave three or more haplotypes from a single individual, indicating gene duplication. No differences in expression greater than 1.35-fold were found between haplotypes originating from the same or paralogous genes. CONCLUSION: The lack of common functional polymorphisms in any of these promoters indicates that expression of glutamate receptors and transporters is unusually tightly controlled, and suggests the possibility that non-coding polymorphisms in these genes are rare and may be unlikely to contribute in a major way to neuro-psychiatric phenotypes. This study represents the world's largest survey of the any group of promoters yet performed for any gene system.

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We have developed a rapid method for identifying functional promoter-region polymorphisms. Using a modified pGL3 luciferase expression T-vector, we can amplify by PCR, clone, identify allelic pairs of a polymorphic gene promoter region, and prepare plasmids for cell culture 10 promoters (20 allele pairs) per week per researcher. By utilizing 96-well plate technology and an internal control plasmid expressing secreted alkaline phosphatase, each of these allele pairs can be tested for relative promoter activity in each of three cell lines (HEK293t, TE671, and JEG3) with similar resources.

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The dopamine D(3) receptor gene (DRD3) is a candidate for a number of psychiatric conditions including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and alcohol and drug abuse. Previous studies have reported associations between polymorphisms in DRD3 and these disorders, but these findings may have reflected linkage disequilibrium with pathogenic variants that are further upstream. We have isolated and sequenced approximately 9 kb of genomic sequence upstream of the human DRD3 translational start site. Using 5' RACE, we have identified within this region three additional exons and two putative promoter regions which show promoter activity in three different cell lines. A 5' UTR identified only in lymphoblasts is spread over three exons and is 353 bp long. A second 5' UTR, found in adult and fetal brain, lymphocytes, kidney and placenta is spread over two exons and is 516 bp long. A 260-bp sequence within this 9 kb corresponds to a previously reported EST, but corresponding mRNA could not be found in the tissues above. The EST, 5' UTRs and putative promoter regions have been analysed for polymorphisms, revealing 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms, seven of which were tested for association in a large sample of unrelated patients with schizophrenia and matched controls. No associations were observed with schizophrenia. In addition we failed to replicate previous findings of association with homozygosity of the Ser9Gly variant. The results from this study imply that neither the coding nor the regulatory region of DRD3 plays a major role in predisposition to schizophrenia.

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The glutamatergic system is the major excitatory neurotransmitter system in the CNS. Glutamate receptors, and in particular N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, have been proposed as mediators of many common neuropsychiatric phenotypes including cognition, psychosis, and degeneration. We have reconstructed the genomic structure of all five genes encoding NMDA receptors in silico. We screened each for sequence variation and estimated the allele frequencies of all detected SNPs in pooled samples of 184 UK Caucasian schizophrenics and 184 UK Caucasian blood donor controls. Only a single non-synonymous polymorphism was found indicating extreme selection pressure. The rarity of non-synonymous changes suggests that such variants are unlikely to make a common contribution to common phenotypes. We found a further 26 polymorphisms within exonic or adjacent intronic sequences. The minor alleles of most of these have a relatively high frequency (63% above 0.2). These SNPs will therefore be suitable for studying neuropsychiatric phenotypes that are putatively related to NMDA dysfunction. Pooled analysis provided no support for association between any of the GRIN genes and schizophrenia.

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By testing DNA pools rather than single samples the number of tests for a case-control association study can be decreased to only two for each marker: one on the patient and one on the control pool. A fundamental requirement is that each pool represents the frequency of the markers in the corresponding population beyond the influence of experimental errors. Consequently the latter must be carefully determined. To this aim, we prepared pools of different size (49-402 individuals) with accurately quantified DNAs, estimated the allelic frequencies in the pools of two SNPs by primer extension genotyping followed by DHPLC analysis and compared them with the real frequencies determined in the single samples. Our data show that (1) the method is highly reproducible: the standard deviation of repeated determinations was +/-0.014; (2) the experimental error (i.e., the discrepancy between the estimated and real frequencies) was +/-0.013 (95% C.I.: 0.0098-0.0165). The magnitude of this error was not correlated to the pool size or to the type of SNP. The effect of the observed experimental error on the power of the association test was evaluated. We conclude that this method constitutes an efficient tool for high-throughput association screenings provided that the experimental error is low. We therefore recommend that before a pool is used for extensive association studies, its quality, i.e., the experimental error, is verified by determining the difference between estimated and real frequencies for at least one marker.

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Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE; insulysin; EC 3.4.24.56) is a 110-kDa neutral metallopeptidase that can degrade a number of peptides including beta-amyloid. The gene encoding IDE is located on chromosome 10 close to a region of linkage for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) and thus is a functional and positional candidate for this disorder. We analysed all of the coding exons, untranslated regions and 1000 bp of 5'-flanking sequence of IDE by using denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography and sequencing. We detected eight single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), three in the 5' flanking sequence and five in the coding sequence, of which three were found at lower than 5% frequency. None of them changed the amino acid sequence. We genotyped the five SNPs with allele frequencies of more than 5% in 133 Caucasian LOAD cases and 135 controls collected in the UK and 95 cases and 117 controls collected at the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA. Two of the SNPs were analysed in a further independent case-control sample (Washington University, St. Louis: 86 cases, 94 controls). No significant association was found with any individual SNP in any of the samples or with any haplotypes. Analysis of the marker D10S583, which maps 36 kb upstream of IDE, also failed to show association in 134 cases and 111 matched controls from the UK ( P=0.63). Strong linkage disequilibrium was detected between the five SNPs that spanned the whole of the 120-kb genomic region of IDE and one major and a number of minor haplotypes were detected in the populations studied. We conclude that IDE does not make a substantial contribution to the aetiology of LOAD and therefore cannot account for the linkage between LOAD and 10q.

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Neurotensin and its high affinity receptor (NTSR1) localise within dopaminergic neurones in the mesocortical, mesolimbic and nigrostriatal systems and it is now clear that neurotensin can selectively modulate dopaminergic neurotransmission. This has led to the hypothesis that altered neurotensin function contributes to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and other psychoses. This hypothesis has been supported circumstantially by a number of lines of evidence. (1) Central administration of neurotensin produces effects similar to those produced by the peripheral administration of atypical antipsychotics. (2) Observations of low levels of neurotensin in the CSF of schizophrenics. (3) Reduced numbers of neurotensin receptors in the brains of schizophrenics. Given the above link between neurotensin and dopamine, and the evidence implicating altered neurotensin function in psychosis, we have postulated that DNA sequence variation in neurotensin or its receptors might be associated with schizophrenia. In keeping with this hypothesis, an association has recently been reported between schizophrenia and the gene encoding the neurotensin high affinity receptor (NTSR1). However, caution is required because the associated marker, a tetranucleotide repeat, is located 3 kb away from the 3' end of the gene and there is no evidence that it is functional. Therefore, as a follow-up to our earlier work on neurotensin, we have now sought to test the hypothesis that DNA sequence variants that alter the structure or expression of the NTSR1 gene (VAPSEs) are associated with schizophrenia. However, while we found 14 novel sequence variants in 28 probands with psychosis, none resulted in an amino acid change, and neither direct nor indirect association studies suggested these are involved in susceptibility to schizophrenia.

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Tuberous sclerosis (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterised by the development of hamartomas in multiple tissues and organs. TSC exhibits locus heterogeneity with genes at 9q34 (TSC1) and 16p13.3 (TSC2) that have 21 and 41 coding exons, respectively. The mutational spectrum at both loci is wide and previous studies have shown that 60%-70% of cases are sporadic and represent new mutations. We have formatted denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) for rapid screening of all coding exons of TSC1 and TSC2. DHPLC analysis detected likely disease-causing mutations in 103 of 150 unrelated cases (68%), compared with 92/150 (61%) and 87/150 (58%) for single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis (SSCP) and conventional heteroduplex analysis (HA), respectively. Capital, consumable and labour costs were determined for each exon screening procedure. Estimated costs per patient sample depended on throughput, particularly for DHPLC, where a high proportion of costs are fixed, and were pounds sterling 257, pound sterling 216 and pound sterling 242 for DHPLC, SSCP and HA, respectively, assuming a throughput of 252 samples per year, or pound sterling 354, pound sterling 233 and pound sterling 259, assuming a throughput of 126 samples per year. DHPLC had the advantages of increased sensitivity and reduced labour costs when compared with more traditional approaches to exon screening but, unless expensive DHPLC equipment is being efficiently utilised for a very high proportion of the time available, overall costs are slightly higher.

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Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) is a relatively non specific enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of several classical neurotransmitters including dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT; serotonin). AADC does not catalyse the rate limiting step in either pathway, but is rate limiting in the synthesis of 2-phenylethylamine (2PE) which is a positive modulator of dopaminergic transmission and a candidate natural psychotogenic compound.1 We and others have proposed that polymorphism in AADC resulting in altered 2PE activity might contribute to the pathogenesis of psychosis. In order to test this hypothesis, we have used denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC)3 to screen 3943 bases of the AADC gene and its promoter regions for variants that might affect protein structure or expression in 15 unrelated people with schizophrenia, and 15 unrelated people with bipolar disorder. Three polymorphisms were identified by DHPLC: a insertion/deletion polymorphism in the 5' UTR of the neuronal specific mRNA (g.-33-30delAGAG, bases 586-589 of GenBank M77828), a T>A variant in the non-neuronal exon 1 (g. -67T>A, GenBank M88070), and a G>A polymorphism within intron 8 (g. IVS8 +75G>A, GenBank M84598). Case-control analysis did not suggest that genetic polymorphism in the AADC gene is associated with liability for developing schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.

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Neurotensin (NT) localizes within dopaminergic neurones in the mesocortical, mesolimbic and nigrostriatal systems, and it is now clear that NT can selectively modulate dopaminergic neurotransmission. It has therefore been proposed that altered NT function might contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders in which disordered dopaminergic neurotransmission is suspected. We have previously screened the gene encoding NT in a sample of schizophrenic and bipolar subjects, and identified three sequence variants. These have now been tested for association with bipolar disorder using a case-control sample of unrelated bipolar subjects and matched controls. No evidence for association was found, and our data therefore suggest that sequence variation in this gene does not make an important contribution to susceptibility to bipolar disorder.

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Neurotensin (NT) is an endogenous tridecapetide1 cleaved from a precursor proneurotensin/ proneuromedin protein. NT localises within dopaminergic neurones in the mesocortical, mesolimbic and nigrostriatal systems1-3 and it is now clear that NT can selectively modulate dopaminergic neurotransmission.2-9 These anatomical and functional connections have led to the hypothesis that NT dysfunction might contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders in which disordered dopaminergic neurotransmission is suspected, particularly schizophrenia.3 The latter hypothesis has been supported circumstantially by the observation that central administration of NT produces effects similar to those produced by the peripheral administration of atypical antipsychotics,10,11 and more directly by studies showing levels of NT in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) is lower in schizophrenics than in controls.12,13 To allow such hypotheses to be tested, we used denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC)14 to identify three sequence variants in the neurotensin gene (NTS) that might alter NT structure or expression. However, using a case-control study design and a novel genotyping system based upon a primer extension protocol and HPLC detection,15 we found no evidence to support the hypothesis that variation in the proneurotensin gene contributes to susceptibility to schizophrenia.

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At present, the cost of genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in large numbers of subjects poses a formidable problem for molecular genetic approaches to complex diseases. We have tested the possibility of using primer extension and denaturing high performance liquid chromatography to estimate allele frequencies of SNPs in pooled DNA samples. Our data show that this method should allow the accurate estimation of absolute allele frequencies in pooled samples of DNA and also of the difference in allele frequency between different pooled DNA samples. This technique therefore offers an efficient and cheap method for genotyping SNPs in large case-control and family-based association samples.

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BACKGROUND: Denaturing HPLC (DHPLC) is a semi-automated method for detecting unknown DNA sequence variants. The sensitivity of the method is dependent on the temperature at which the analysis is undertaken, the selection of which is dependent on operator experience. To circumvent this, software has been developed for predicting the optimal temperature for DHPLC analysis. We examined the utility of this software. METHODS: To maximize the relevance of our data for other investigators, we have screened 42 different amplimers from CFTR, TSC1, and TSC2. The samples consisted of 103 unique sequence heterozygotes and 126 wild-type homozygous controls. RESULTS: At the temperature recommended by the software, 96% (99 of 103) of heterozygotes and all of the wild-type controls were correctly classified. This compares favorably with sensitivities of 85% for single-stranded conformation polymorphism and 82% for gel-based heteroduplex analyses of the same fragments. CONCLUSIONS: Software-optimized DHPLC is a highly sensitive method for mutation detection. However, where sensitivity >96% is required, our data suggest that in addition to the recommended temperature, fragments should also be run at the recommended temperature plus 2 degrees C.

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Darier's disease (DD) is a rare, dominantly inherited disorder that affects the skin producing a variety of types of lesion. Close examination of lesional DD skin shows the presence of abnormal keratinization (epidermal differentiation) and acantholysis (loss of cohesion) of keratinocytes. A number of clinical studies have described the co-occurrence of various neurological and psychiatric symptoms with DD, including mood disorders, epilepsy, mental retardation and a slowly progressive encephalopathy. A single locus for DD has been mapped to chromosome 12q23-q24.1, and a variety of missense, nonsense, frameshift and splicing mutations in the ATP2A2 gene have been described recently in families with DD. This gene encodes the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium-pumping ATPase SERCA2, which has a central role in intra-cellular calcium signalling. In this study, we performed mutation analysis on ATP2A2 in 19 unrelated DD patients, of whom 10 had neuropsychiatric phenotypes. We identified and verified 17 novel mutations predicting conservative and non-conservative amino acid changes, potential premature translation terminations and potential altered splicing. Our findings confirm that mutations in ATP2A2 are associated with DD. In neuropsychiatric cases, there was a non-random clustering of mutations in the 3' end of the gene ( P = 0.01), and a predominance of the missense type (70% versus 38% in DD patients). This supports the hypothesis that the DD gene has pleiotropic effects in brain and that mutations in SERCA2 are implicated in the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders.

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We have investigated the possibility of genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) by primer extension and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Using three polymorphisms of current interest to our group (an A/G polymorphism in the proneurotensin gene and A/G and T/C polymorphisms in the 5HT2a receptor gene), we show that robust signal is obtained using this simple analytic method which has the added advantages that sample loading and analysis are essentially automated, analytic time is brief, and no further purification step after primer extension is required. We also show that all stages of the HPLC-primer extension genotyping can be multiplexed which, together with automation, suggests that this system may be suitable for linkage studies based upon emerging SNP maps.

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Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) is a novel high-capacity technique for detecting new mutations. We have evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of this method in a blind analysis of exon H of the factor IX gene and exon 16 of the neurofibromatosis type 1 gene. Under a single set of conditions for each exon, 55/55 individuals carrying 48 unique mutations were correctly identified as were 55/55 individuals with wildtype alleles. We conclude that DHPLC is a highly sensitive and specific method for mutation detection.

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Efforts to derive a physical map of the genome of Eimeria tenella are being made to complement genetic mapping and to assist in the production of an integrated map. A large insert library of DNA from the Houghton (H) reference strain of E. tenella has been constructed in yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs). The library contains a tenfold E. tenella genome equivalent consisting of 3177 clones arrayed in 96-well microtitre plates and gridded on nylon membranes at 1728 clones/86 cm2. Size fractionation of a random sample of 185 YACs revealed an average insert size of approximately 170 kb. Hybridisation of four E. tenella single-copy probes to the gridded colony filters produced around four or more positive clones. A probe representing the whole of the 1.2-Mb chromosome 2, excised from a preparative gel following pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, revealed between 80 and 100 positive clones.

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