RESUMEN

An analysis of 1990 census data on the educational enrollment of 15- to 17-year-old immigrants to the United States provides partial support for predictions from both the segmented-assimilation hypothesis and the immigrant optimism hypothesis. Most immigrant adolescents, especially from Asia, are as likely as their native-born peers to be enrolled in high school, or more so. The "at-risk" immigrant youths with above-average levels of nonenrollment that are not reduced with longer exposure to American society are primarily of Hispanic Caribbean origins (from Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba). Recent Mexican immigrants who arrived as teenagers have nonenrollment rates over 40%, but Mexican youths who arrived at younger ages are only somewhat less likely to be enrolled in school than are native-born Americans.

Asunto(s)

Aculturación , Emigración e Inmigración/estadística & datos numéricos , Estudiantes/estadística & datos numéricos , Adolescente , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Modelos Estadísticos , Riesgo , Distribución por Sexo , Factores Socioeconómicos

RESUMEN

Before the demographic transition in Thailand, fertility was high, but not uniformly so. As in other pre-transition settings, Thai fertility responded to pressures and opportunities created by socioeconomic structure and land availability. Drawing upon provincial data from the 1947 and 1960 censuses of Thailand, we find a strong 'frontier effect' on Thai fertility in the 1950s. Fertility was higher in sparsely settled frontier provinces and lower in provinces with higher population density relative to cultivatable land. This finding is robust and holds up with controls for agricultural employment, land quality, and the sex ratio (an indicator of sex-selective migration). The effect of population pressure lowers the likelihood of marriage and of marital fertility. The findings from Thailand are consistent with the research of Easterlin on the nineteenth century United States and with other pre-transition societies. We suggest how demographic transition theory might be broadened to include fertility dynamics in pre-transition societies.

Asunto(s)

Fertilidad , Dinámica Poblacional , Historia del Siglo XX , Tailandia

RESUMEN

The 1996 Racial and Ethnic Targeted Test (RAETT) was a "mail-out mail-back" household survey with an experimental design of eight alternative questionnaire formats containing systematic variations in race, instructions, question order, and other aspects of the measurement. The eight different questionnaires were administered to random subsamples of six "targeted" populations: geographic areas with ethnic concentrations of whites, blacks, American Indians, Alaskan natives, Asian and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics. The major conclusion is that allowing multiple responses to the "race" question in the 2000 census (and other variations in measurement that were considered in RAETT) had only a slight impact on the measured racial composition of the population. Another finding was a dramatic reduction in nonresponse to the combined race/Hispanic-origin question relative to all other questionnaire formats. We conclude that the concept of "origins" may be closer to the popular understanding of American diversity than is the antiquated concept of race.

Asunto(s)

Censos , Etnicidad/estadística & datos numéricos , Diversidad Cultural , Demografía , Predicción , Agencias Gubernamentales , Humanos , Crecimiento Demográfico , Distribución Aleatoria , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Estados Unidos

RESUMEN

PIP: The historical demographic analysis in this article is a revision of a paper presented at the Conference of the Northwest Regional Consortium for Southeast Asian Studies in 1988 at the University of Oregon. The author takes the view that fertility has remained high in the Southeast Asian region due to the dynamics of colonialism and the reinforcement of traditional society. Industrialization, urbanization, and advancing education was not favored by colonial policy. The shift to planting cash crops was labor-intensive work which reinforced large families. The fertility decline after the 1960s is attributed to population pressure and the lower limits of land and production per family. Incentives for smaller families are identified as the expansion of mass education, increased consumer aspirations, and opportunities for modern sector employment. The impact of population growth is viewed as multidimensional and indicative of the conflicts between resources, obligations, and aspirations. The historical record in Southeast Asia reveals a population shortage and the risk of losing the minimum supply of labor necessary for a subsistence economy. Traditional local authorities were in need of men for waging war and producing an economic surplus. Colonial administrators imported cheap labor. As mortality declined and population increased, the societal response was migration, usually to frontier areas. New zones of wet rice production were created in lower Burma, central Siam, and Cochin China due to increased demand. Other survival strategies are identified as infinite land subdivision and multiple job holding in the off-season. Densely populated areas appeared to have lower fertility. Over the past 20 years the strategy appears to have been lower fertility coupled with acceptance of family planning, higher female educational attainment, and higher age at marriage. Southeast Asian patterns are considered indicative of the impact of wars, crises, and economic change on demographic processes and of the demographic impact of changes in population size, density, and structure on social, political, and economic outcomes.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Tasa de Natalidad , Colonialismo , Demografía , Economía , Geografía , Mortalidad , Política , Crecimiento Demográfico , Cambio Social , Planificación Social , Asia , Asia Sudoriental , Países en Desarrollo , Fertilidad , Sistemas Políticos , Población , Dinámica Poblacional , Ciencias Sociales

RESUMEN

PIP: Many people think that lowered mortality and lowered fertility following socioeconomic development is the classic definition of demographic transition. Demographers are not, however, sure. Demographic transition was completed in most industrial countries over the period 1870-1930, while contemporary transitions are currently underway in many developing countries. Considerable controversy exists over the causes of these changes. Although new data and empirical analyses of historical and contemporary fertility declines have weakened the standard theory of demographic transition, no definitive, all-encompassing theory of fertility change exists. Empirical evidence on the origins, speed, and correlates of fertility declines in different historical and geographical settings points to the existence of more diversity than a simple theory of fertility change can predict. The author considers the measurement of fertility and fertility change and summarizes the recent evidence on fertility levels and trends in historical and contemporary populations. The core of the essay consists of a comparison of classical and contemporary theories of fertility transitions and a discussion of unresolved issues in current research. An alternative model of demographic transition is suggested.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Países Desarrollados , Países en Desarrollo , Fertilidad , Modelos Teóricos , Dinámica Poblacional , Demografía , Población

RESUMEN

PIP: A multilevel model of macro and micro variables is used to examine the fertility determinants in the 4 regions of Thailand. The level and pace of fertility decline has varied across regions. Fertility behavior is considered at parity 0, at parities 1-3, and among women with 4 children. Contextual level variables are the status of women, the value of children, infant mortality in 1970, and population pressure. Micro data were obtained from 1970 and 1980 census files for women 15-49 years matched with own children data (aged 1-4 years and born between 1975-79). In general, contextual variables were more important determinants at parity 1-3 and had no effect at parity 0, and individual differences were more important at parity 0. The findings in the regression analyses show consistent results with prior research: older ages effecting a decrease on fertility, migrants having fewer children, higher female education and higher occupational status of husbands lower fertility. When marriage status is controlled at parity 0 the relationship between individual variables and marriage shows sign changes and reduced effects. The effects of individual variables are strongest at parity 4 and over, but affect all parities. Variations between regions on individual variables are small. Contextual variables show less consistency in results. Status of women results show significant negative effects at parity 4 for the central and northern regions. At parity 1-3 the status of women with contextual variables shows status as an important determinant of fertility. Provinces with higher levels of education had lower fertility. The value of children is negatively associated with fertility. The effect is greatest for parity 1-3 women. The north shows significant relationships, while the other regions are inconsistent; the implications are discussed. Infant mortality is not related to fertility except at 0 parity in the north (positive relationship). Population pressure is related to lower fertility in the northeast and south; in the north the results are significant but the sign changes. Only with parity 4 in the south were family planning programs related to lower fertility (negative association); the results are positive in the north and northeast. The policy implications are that increasing the opportunities for women will have an impact on fertility, and fertility would be indirectly affected through improvements in women's status. Decentralization of policy making on fertility is needed along with awareness of the cultural and social environment.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Tasa de Natalidad , Censos , Niño , Cultura , Demografía , Escolaridad , Empleo , Composición Familiar , Política de Planificación Familiar , Fertilidad , Geografía , Planificación en Salud , Mortalidad Infantil , Estado Civil , Paridad , Dinámica Poblacional , Política Pública , Análisis de Regresión , Investigación , Factores Socioeconómicos , Estudiantes , Derechos de la Mujer , Asia , Asia Sudoriental , Conservación de los Recursos Naturales , Países en Desarrollo , Economía , Ambiente , Servicios de Planificación Familiar , Fuerza Laboral en Salud , Matrimonio , Mortalidad , Población , Características de la Población , Clase Social , Estadística como Asunto , Tailandia

RESUMEN

Using microdata from the 1970 and 1980 censuses, we specify and test multilevel models of fertility determination for four Southeast Asian societies--Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Social context is indexed by provincial characteristics representing women's status, the roles of children, and infant mortality. These contextual variables are hypothesized to have direct and indirect (through individual socioeconomic characteristics) effects on current fertility. The contextual variables account for a modest but significant share of individual variation in fertility and about one-half of the total between area variation in fertility. The women's status contextual variables, particularly modern sector employment, have the largest and most consistent effect on lowered fertility. The results based on the other contextual variables provide mixed support for the initial hypotheses.

Asunto(s)

Comparación Transcultural , Países en Desarrollo , Fertilidad , Adolescente , Adulto , Análisis de Varianza , Asia Sudoriental , Tasa de Natalidad/tendencias , Femenino , Identidad de Género , Humanos , Recién Nacido , Cambio Social , Factores Socioeconómicos

RESUMEN

"This article examines the trend in ethnic stratification from 1940 to 1950, a decade that has been viewed as a critical turning point in race and ethnic relations in the United States.... It begins with a brief overview of ethnic diversity in the United States and a descriptive account of ethnic differentiation and inequality. Then it tests--in a preliminary fashion--several hypotheses about the role of socioeconomic and geographical forces in shaping ethnic occupational inequality across this significant interval of American history. Based upon an analysis of the newly released Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) files of the 1940 and 1950 Population Censuses, the study concludes that racial minorities and Hispanics experienced a qualitatively different occupational attainment process than did men in the white majority and white ethnic populations." This is a revised version of a paper originally presented at the 1986 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America (see Population Index, Vol. 52, No. 3, Fall 1986, p. 445).

Asunto(s)

Negro o Afroamericano , Empleo , Etnicidad , Geografía , Hispánicos o Latinos , Grupos Minoritarios , Factores Socioeconómicos , Población Blanca , Américas , Cultura , Demografía , Países Desarrollados , Economía , América del Norte , Población , Características de la Población , Investigación , Clase Social , Estados Unidos

RESUMEN

PIP: Fertility in Peninsular Malaysia has declined continuously from the late 1950s, reaching a total fertility rate of 3735 in 1983. All ethnic groups in Malaysia have contributed to this modern demographic transition but the rate of change has been most rapid for Chinese and Indians, Malay fertility having reached a plateau in the early 1980s. The effect of age structure, marital patterns and marital fertility (by parity) on the fertility declines for each ethnic community are analyzed. There has been a tendency, in each ethnic group, for the age distribution within the group of reproductive-age women to grow younger, reflecting the entry into the younger reproductive ages of the large birth cohorts of the 1950s and early 1960s. The effect of this on crude birth rates is hard to determine, because rising age at marriage and increasing use of contraception meant that fertility was increasingly concentrated in the more central reproductive ages. By the 1990s, the earlier declines in fertility will bring about a decline in the proportion of the total population made up of females in the main reproductive ages. After that point, further declines in fertility will be reflected in a sharper decline in the crude birth rate and hence the rate of population increase. Between 1947 and 1980, the age at marriage changed dramatically for females of all ethnic groups. The transition to higher age at marriage for Chinese was completed earlier, and since 1970 has risen by only a year. For Malays and Indians, the rise began later, proceeded faster and continued right up to 1980 when the medium ages at 1st marriage were Malays 22, Indians 23, Chinese 24 years. In 1980, Malay women on average were marrying 5 years later, and Indian women 6 years later than had their mothers' generation in 1947. The proportion never-married among Malay and Indian women aged 20-24 rose from 1/10 to 1/2 over this period; relatively greater changes are evident at ages 25-29. Other factors are the almost complete shift from parent-arranged to self-arranged marriages. Family size desired has decreased for all groups and the decline in breastfeeding has been offset by the sharp increase in the practice of contraception. Continuation of these trends would lead to replacement-level fertility for Malaysian Chinese and Indians by the year 2000. Malay fertility is likely to continue to decline but at a more moderate pace.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Etnicidad , Fertilidad , Dinámica Poblacional , Tasa de Natalidad , Femenino , Humanos , Recién Nacido , Malasia , Embarazo , Cambio Social

Asunto(s)

Fertilidad , Adolescente , Adulto , Factores de Edad , Tasa de Natalidad , China/etnología , Escolaridad , Femenino , Humanos , India/etnología , Malasia , Persona de Mediana Edad , Paridad , Estadística como Asunto , Factores de Tiempo

Asunto(s)

Comparación Transcultural , Composición Familiar , Adulto , Factores de Edad , Asia , Intervalo entre Nacimientos , Empleo , Femenino , Humanos , Matrimonio , Edad Materna , Persona de Mediana Edad , Factores Socioeconómicos , Factores de Tiempo

RESUMEN

Exposure of normal mononuclear leukocytes (MNL) to histamine causes heterologous desensitization accompanied by beta adrenergic receptor alterations and increased cyclic AMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity. We have demonstrated similar abnormalities in MNL from patients with atopic dermatitis (AD). Considering that these dual changes might be due to altered phosphorylation, we have studied cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PK-A) in untreated and histamine-treated normal MNL and in AD cells. We found that basal or endogenous phosphorylative activity was two-fold higher in preparations from patients with AD. The activity ratios of protein kinase increased significantly in normal MNL after histamine exposure. In contrast, cells from patients with AD failed to show this increase. These findings correlate with similarly increased PDE activity after histamine stimulation of normal, but not AD cells. The increased PK-A activity in both atopic and histamine-desensitized MNL correlates with membrane receptor changes and elevated PDE activity. This enchaned phosphorylation may account for the varied physiological and immunological abnormalities that have been described in AD.

Asunto(s)

3',5'-AMP Cíclico Fosfodiesterasas/metabolismo , Dermatitis Atópica/metabolismo , Monocitos/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinasas/metabolismo , Dermatitis Atópica/sangre , Histamina/farmacología , Humanos , Monocitos/efectos de los fármacos , Fosforilación , Estimulación Química

RESUMEN

Abstract This paper examines the determinants of age at first birth from an explicitly comparative perspective in the following Asian societies: Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand. The key structural variables have the same (or similar) effects in each of the groups examined. Education through primary school and beyond has a strong delaying effect on age at first birth in all eight populations. Difference of rural-urban origin does not affect the timing of motherhood in any of these societies. We also find a remarkably strong effect of shared cultural heritage. All the Confucian groups tend to behave similarly, as do the Muslim and Hindu groups.

Asunto(s)

Recolección de Datos , Emigración e Inmigración , Investigación , Demografía , Composición Familiar , Población , Dinámica Poblacional , Clase Social , Migrantes

Asunto(s)

Aculturación , Necesidades y Demandas de Servicios de Salud , Grupos Minoritarios , Prejuicio , Investigación , Cambio Social , Clase Social , Migrantes , Américas , Demografía , Países Desarrollados , Economía , Emigración e Inmigración , América del Norte , Población , Características de la Población , Dinámica Poblacional , Relaciones Raciales , Problemas Sociales , Factores Socioeconómicos , Estados Unidos

RESUMEN

Analysis of the 1973 National Survey of Family Growth shows a continued downward trend in breast feeding by successive cohorts of American mothers. The downward trend is evident in both measures of incidence (ever-breast feeding) and duration of breast feeding for first and higher-order births. For all cohorts higher-order births are less likely to be breast fed than first births. However, breast feeding of higher-order births is typically of a longer duration. Differentials in breast feeding reveal strong associations with indicators of social class; women who are college graduates, who work as professionals, and who are married to professional husbands are most likely to breast-feed their infants. Differentials in average duration of breast feeding are often reversed from differentials in ever-breast feeding.

Asunto(s)

Lactancia Materna , Adulto , Orden de Nacimiento , Familia , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Factores Socioeconómicos , Factores de Tiempo , Estados Unidos

RESUMEN

PIP: Changes in labor force participation of Malay, Chinese and Indian women in the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors in Peninsular Malaysia, based on the 1957 and 1970 censuses, are analyzed. Brief discussions of the relation between economic development and female labor force participation, the socioeconomic development and ethnic composition of Malaysia, and past research on women's labor force participation in Peninsular Malaysia provide background for the analysis. The overall participation rate of women aged 15 to 64 rose from 31% in 1957 to 37% in 1970, with most of the increase among younger women. Participation rates rose for Malay women at all ages, dropped sharply for Indian women at all ages, and rose for Chinese women below age 40 but declined thereafter. Trends in Chinese female labor force activity seem to fit the developmental model most closely; Malay employment in agriculture among middle-aged women probably appeared to increase due to underestimation in the 1957 census; and Indian participation declined due to a sharp curtailment of the entire plantation labor force. Cross sectional analysis using the 1970 2% census sample demonstrates that rural residence, low educational level, and married status are associated with employment in the traditional and modern agricultural sectors. Higher educational attainment, urban residence, and delayed marriage are associated with employment in the modern non-agricultural sector. Chinese women had higher proportions in the modern sector.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Empleo , Factores Socioeconómicos , Factores de Edad , Agricultura , Economía , Escolaridad , Etnicidad , Fuerza Laboral en Salud , Malasia , Población Rural , Población Urbana

RESUMEN

PIP: A detailed analysis of fertility trends in Peninsular Malaysia from 1947 through 1974, based on annual period rates from vital statistics data and cumulative fertility measures from the 1947, 1957, and 1970 censuses, is presented. Fertility levels from 1947 to 1957 were quite high and possibly increasing, with a crude birth rate in the middle 40s. A rapid decline among all major ethnic groups brought the crude birth rate from 46 in 1956 to 31 in 1974, while over the same period the general fertility rate dropped from 210 to 130 births per 1000 women of reproductive age. Decomposition of changes in the crude birth rate from 1958 to 1970 indicates that most of the decline in the crude birth rate was due to rising average age at marriage, and the rest to small declines in marital fertility. The fall in total fertility rates ranged from 1.2 births per woman among Malays to 3.2 births per woman among Indians between 1958 and 1974. Signs of declining marital fertility among Malay and Indian women in their late 20s and 30s appeared in the late 1960s, but the principal element in their fertility decline was delayed marriage. In 1957 over half of Malay and Indian women aged 15-19 were married, while in 1970 only 1 in 5 were. Changes in age structure reinforced the decline of the Malay crude birth rate but offset part of the reduction of age-specific fertility among Chinese and Indians. Substantial reductions in proportions currently married were important for all ethnic groups. Future fertility declines will depend primarily on changes in marital fertility rates because the age structure will be favorable to higher fertility and marriage postponement is already advanced.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Tasa de Natalidad , Factores de Edad , Demografía , Etnicidad , Fertilidad , Malasia , Matrimonio , Población , Dinámica Poblacional

RESUMEN

Summary In order to unravel the complex set of the determinants of fertility, we suggest that the child-bearing process be separated into a sequence of events and intervals. As the first step in the child-bearing process, age at first birth is a critical variable. Using data from the 1966-67 West Malaysia Family Survey, we formulate and test a model of the cultural, social and economic determinants of the timing of first birth among a sample of mothers, aged 30-44. Social origins, measured by the woman's father's occupation and the woman's birthplace are not important determinants, but education, early work experience, and ethnicity exercise very strong effects on the age at first birth. Age at first marriage mediates much of the effect of background variables, which suggest that there is little use of contraception to plan the first birth interval. The strong effect of ethnicity is consistent with a cultural interpretation, but important qualifications are noted.

RESUMEN

PIP: The primary source of data for this study of trends in breast feeding among American mothers was Cycle 1 of the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) conducted in 1973. Interviews were held with a nationwide, area probability sample of 9797 women aged 15-44 years who had ever been married or who had children of their own living in the household. Study focus was on trends and differentials in the proportion of women who breastfed their babies, not the proportion of babies who were breastfed. With this focus, the findings presented in this report show the comparative frequency with which mothers in different groups have breastfed their infants. Both the NSFG and the 1965 National Fertility Study data show the marked decline in the incidence of breastfeeding in recent generations of American women. Trends by birth cohorts of women show that 2/3 of the women born in the 1920s breastfed their 1st infant, but only 1/4 of the women born in the late 1940s and early 1950s did so. Over 70% of 1st born infants in the 1930s were breastfed, but less than 30% in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The decline leveled off in the early 1970s, but it is too soon to tell if this is an indication of a rise in the rate of breastfeeding. More than 2/3 of the women breastfed their infants in recent years had stopped by the time the child was 3 months old. 2nd born infants were considerably less likely than 1st born to be breastfed. The level and trend in breastfeeding varied widely across various socioeconomic and cultural categories. Among the groups that had experienced the most precipitous declines in breastfeeding levels over the past 2 decades were black women, women with less than 12 years of education, and women who never worked outside the home.^ieng

Asunto(s)

Lactancia Materna , Adolescente , Adulto , Factores de Edad , Escolaridad , Empleo , Etnicidad , Femenino , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Matrimonio , Ocupaciones , Paridad , Pobreza , Embarazo , Religión , Población Rural , Estadística como Asunto , Estados Unidos