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Metal arc welding ranges from primitive (manual) to increasingly complex automated welding processes. Welding occupies 1% of the labour force in some industrialised countries and increasing knowledge of health risks, necessitating improved assessment strategies and controls have been identified by the International Institute of Welding (IIW), ILO, WHO and other authoritative bodies. Challenges for developing countries need to be addressed. For small scale production and repair work, predominantly by manual metal arc on mild steel, the focus in developing economies has correctly been on control of obvious physical and acute health affects. Development introduces more sophisticated processes and hazards. Work pieces of stainless steel and consumables with chromium, nickel and manganese constituents are used with increasingly complex semi-manual or automated systems involving variety of fluxes or gasses. Uncritical adoption of new welding technologies by developing countries potentiates future health problems. Control should be integral at the design stage, otherwise substantive detriments and later costs can ensue. Developing countries need particular guidance on selection of the optimised welding consumables and processes to minimise such detriments. The role of the IIW and the MFRU are described. Applications of occupational hygiene principals of prevention and control of welding fume at source by process modification are presented.

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There is growing concern over the neurotoxic effects of chronic occupational exposure to metal fume produced by welding. Elevated iron and manganese levels in the brain have been linked to an increase in lipid peroxidation, dopamine depletion and predisposition to the development of a Parkinson's type condition in advanced cases. Chemical and toxicological analysis of selected welding fumes, generated by model processes, were used in order to evaluate their potential to release solutes that promote oxidation of dopamine and peroxidation of brain lipids in cell free assays. This study compared the effect of shield gas, electrode type and voltage/currect upon the dopamine and brain lipid peroxidation potential of selected welding fume, obtained from metal inert gas (MIG) welding systems. Overall, fume extracts were found to enhance dopamine oxidation and inhibit lipid peroxidation. Significant differences were also found in the oxidising potential of fume generated under differing process conditions; it may therefore be possible to determine the potential neurotoxicity of fumes using this system.

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Prediction of fume formation rate during metal arc welding and the composition of the fume are of interest to occupational hygienists concerned with risk assessment and to manufacturers of welding consumables. A model for GMAW (DC electrode positive) is described based on the welder determined process parameters (current, wire feed rate and wire composition), on the surface area of molten metal in the arc and on the partial vapour pressures of the component metals of the alloy wire. The model is applicable to globular and spray welding transfer modes but not to dip mode. Metal evaporation from a droplet is evaluated for short time increments and total evaporation obtained by summation over the life of the droplet. The contribution of fume derived from the weld pool and spatter (particles of metal ejected from the arc) is discussed, as are limitations of the model. Calculated droplet temperatures are similar to values determined by other workers. A degree of relationship between predicted and measured fume formation rates is demonstrated but the model does not at this stage provide a reliable predictive tool.

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This paper describes the relationships between ultra-violet emission, ozone generation and CrVI production in MIG welding which were measured as a function of shield gas flow rate, welding voltage, electrode stick-out and shield gas composition using an automatic welding rig that permitted MIG welding under reproducible conditions. The experimental results are interpreted in terms of the physico-chemical processes occurring in the micro- and macro-environments of the arc as part of research into process modification to reduce occupational exposure to ozone and CrVI production rates in MIG welding. We believe the techniques described here, and in particular the use of what we have termed u.v.-ozone measurements, will prove useful in further study of ozone generation and CrVI formation and may be applied in the investigation of engineering control of occupational exposure in MIG and other welding process such as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) and Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG).

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Hazards to health from exposure to chemicals in automatic processing of photographic film is well documented by ILO and others. In the early 1980s increasing reports of miscellaneous health problems including respiratory and skin effects in radiographers processing X-ray films were published. In some cases asthmatic type responses were reported to be so severe as to exclude the radiographer from further work. It has been suggested that the increased number of such cases coincided with process changes, in particular the increased addition of glutaraldehyde as a hardening agent in the developer to offset the softening of the film especially those of low silver content. Attention must also be focused however on other miscellaneous chemicals present and of the possibility of synergistic reactions. The major problems appear to be associated with heavy workloads, poorly designed and ill-ventilated darkrooms or processing rooms, and lack of appropriate safe handling techniques for the chemicals used. Several studies illustrate improvements by attention to good occupational hygiene practice. The necessity for a holistic approach to control of such a complex micro-environment is stressed. It is unlikely that a single causal agent can be identified.

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Occupational hygiene education and training is undergoing rapid changes both in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, developing closer links with safety and environmental matters whilst retaining the essential and well developed links with occupational medicine. At the same time major developments in the role of professional accreditation bodies including BEBOH are being reviewed. This paper identifies recurring themes on the scope of professionalism, accreditation and the requisite education and training for occupational hygienists.

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Neutron activation analysis has been used to assess the accumulation of metals in lung and other tissue takenpost mortem from occupationally exposed workers. Two groups together with controls have been examined. Twenty-one workers from northern Sweden, previously employed in metal refining, show concentrations of several metals above that in the controls. Increased metal concentrations in lung tissues are also observed in groups of coal miners from the United Kingdom. These results are discussed in relation to the amounts of industrial pollutants taken into lung and their retention periods as a means of estimating the occupational exposure dose.

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For certain metal arc-welding and other metal processing operations, compounds of barium are used as flux components. Airborne fumes generated by welding with electrodes using barium fluoride or carbonate fluxes may contain 15-30% of barium in readily water-soluble form (Dare et al. 1984). Urine of welders inhaling such fumes was shown to contain elevated levels of barium ions (up to 234 micrograms/l). To assess the possible hazards of such exposure, the toxic potencies of fume samples, expressed in terms of their water-soluble barium ion contents, were compared with effects of solutions of barium salts in anaesthetised guinea-pigs. Dose-effect relationships were established and it was verified that acute toxic effects of inhaled aerosols or of intravenous bolus administration correlated with the barium contents of various forms of welding fumes. Bronchopulmonary reactivity to the barium was observed as marked increases in resistance to ventilatory air-flow, indicating bronchoconstriction. Simultaneously, marked pressor effects on blood pressure occurred. ECG abnormalities indicated myocardial hyperexcitability. Effects were modified by nifedipine and propranolol pretreatments.

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Rats were exposed to single periods of inhalation of fumes generated by arc welding. Two processes were compared: either manual metal arc (MMA) using flux-coated mild steel (MS) electrodes or metal inert-gas (MIG) welding with stainless steel (SS). Widespread but small deposits of fume particles were cleared effectively from alveoli and airways. Peribronchial and subpleural aggregates of particle-laden macrophages remained. More massive and persistent lung-burdens were established by intratracheal administration of suspensions of fume-particles (10 mg and 50 mg, single doses). Initial pneumonitis was attributed to irritant gases or soluble toxic components of particles. MIG-SS particle deposits were more persistent and lesions more severe, inhibition of phagocytosis or clearance and damage to epithelial cells being associated with possible toxic effects in macrophages. Both types of particle caused alveolar epithelial thickening, with proliferation of granular pneumocytes and exudation of lamellar material. Foam cells appeared in alveoli. Long-term effects (80-300 days) involved formation of nodular aggregates of particle-laden macrophages. Giant cells were formed. Nodules containing MIG-SS material were irregular and surrounded by collapsed and thickened epithelium. Soluble chromium or nickel constituents are cited as probable active agents producing effects resembling those of cytotoxic non-fibrogenic dusts, e.g., soluble silicas . MMA-MS particles produced low-grade fibrotic ( collagenised ) changes.

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Lung burdens of deposited particles from fumes generated by arc-welding were established in rats by single inhalation exposures, repeated intermittent exposure or by intratracheal injection. Fumes from manual metal arc-welding using flux-coated mild-steel rods (MMA-MS) were compared with those from metal inert-gas welding with stainless steel wire (MIG-SS). After initial rapid clearance of deposited material from the lungs, persistent residual deposits remained. Such residues resulting from single inhalation were small and confined mainly to peribronchial accumulations in macrophage clusters. Deposits remaining after repeated inhalation were larger and more widespread. Intratracheal administration (50 mg) established massive residual deposits, giving nodular accumulations in peribronchial, subpleural and perivascular sites, with substantial alveolar parenchymal involvement. Deposits from both types of fumes contained predominantly iron. Particles from stainless steel also contained chromium, but concentrations of this element were low in deposits from MMA-MS fumes. MMA-MS deposits contained silica, probably amorphous. Long-term studies (up to 450 days) attempted to detect evidence of fibrosis resulting from particle burdens. Low-grade collagen fibre layers developed at margins of MMA-MS nodules. Diffuse reticulin fibre networks occurred within MIG-SS aggregates. Tissue hydroxyproline levels were increased (doubled) in lungs with intratracheal burdens of MMA-MS particles, but no significant increases resulted from MIG-SS. The major lesions were nodular aggregates of particle-laden macrophages with giant-cell formation, and alveolar epithelial thickening with atelectasis.

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During electric arc welding of metals, particulate fume in a variety of chemical compositions and physical forms is produced with consequent complex solution chemistry. Mechanisms of fume formation include condensation of vaporized metals to produce submicron diameter chains, and spatter of larger particles with subsequent oxidation to yield mixed metal oxide fumes in the respirable range. Complete dissolution of certain constituent metals such as chromium, can be achieved by fusion with potassium hydrogen sulphate. Extraction of hexavalent chromium by sodium carbonate/hydroxide solution is efficient and rapid, while some other extractants give erroneous results. Investigations show that constituent metals are released from the fume at different rates both in vitro and in vivo. The implications arising from the complex nature of welding fume for industrial hygiene assessment are discussed.

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Sensitization of guinea pigs by chromium, cobalt and nickel was compared by four methods. The most effective was the maximization test of Magnusson and Kligman. Sensitizing properties of particles from fumes of either manual metal arc (MMA) or metal inert gas welding were demonstrated. Potent sensitization was attributed to chromium.

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