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BACKGROUND: Kidney stones affect people worldwide and have a high rate of recurrence even with treatment. Recurrences are particularly prevalent in people with low urinary citrate levels. These people have a higher incidence of calcium phosphate and calcium oxalate stones. Oral citrate therapy increases the urinary citrate levels, which in turn binds with calcium and inhibits the crystallisation thus reduces stone formation. Despite the widespread use of oral citrate therapy for prevention and treatment of calcium oxalate stones, the evidence to support its clinical efficacy remains uncertain. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review was to determine the efficacy and adverse events associated with citrate salts for the treatment and prevention of calcium containing kidney stones. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Specialised Register to 29 July 2015 through contact with the Trials' Search Co-ordinator using search terms relevant to this review. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that assessed the efficacy and adverse events associated with citrate salts for the treatment and prevention of calcium containing kidney stones in adults treated for a minimum of six months. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors assessed studies for inclusion in this review. Data were extracted according to predetermined criteria. Summary estimates of effect were obtained using a random-effects model, and results were expressed as risk ratios (RR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) for dichotomous outcomes, and mean difference (MD) and 95% CI for continuous outcomes. MAIN RESULTS: We included seven studies that included a total of 477 participants, most of whom had oxalate stones. Of these, three studies (247 participants) compared potassium citrate with placebo or no intervention; three (166 participants) compared potassium-sodium citrate with no intervention; and one (64 participants) compared potassium-magnesium citrate with placebo. Overall, quality of the reporting of the included studies was considered moderate to poor, and there was a high risk of attrition bias in two studies.Compared with placebo or no intervention, citrate therapy significantly reduced the stone size (4 studies, 160 participants: RR 2.35, 95% CI 1.36 to 4.05). New stone formation was significantly lower with citrate therapy compared to control (7 studies, 324 participants: RR 0.26, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.68). The beneficial effect on stone size stability was also evident (4 studies, 160 participants: RR 1.97, 95% CI 1.19 to 3.26). Adverse events were reported in four studies, with the main side effects being upper gastrointestinal disturbance and one patient reported a rash. There were more gastrointestinal adverse events in the citrate group; however this was not significant (4 studies, 271 participants: RR 2.55, 95% CI 0.71 to 9.16). There were significantly more dropouts due to adverse events with citrate therapy compared to control (4 studies, 271 participants: RR 4.45, 95% CI 1.28 to 15.50). The need for retreatment was significantly less with citrate therapy compared to control (2 studies, 157 participants: RR 0.22, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.89). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Citrate salts prevent new stone formation and reduce further stone growth in patients with residual stones that predominantly contain oxalate. The quality of reported literature remains moderate to poor; hence a well-designed statistically powered multi-centre RCT is needed in order to answer relevant questions concerning the efficacy of citrate salts.

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PURPOSE: As there is paucity of data on radical prostatectomy (RP) as a primary treatment for patients with localized prostate cancer, we analyzed the trends in the RP practice in England. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was carried out on 14 300 patients who underwent RP for carcinoma of the prostate. Database was prepared from hospital episode statistics of the Department of Health in England. National trends in RP practice were summarized as well as volume outcome analysis. RESULTS: Annual number of RPs exponentially increased from 972 (1998 to 1999) to 3092 (2004 to 2005). Laparoscopic RPs increased from 2 to 257 over the study period. Median waiting duration increased by more than 10 days (13 days). Significant decrease in median length of hospital stay from 8 (range, 7 to 10) days to 6 (range, 5 to 8) days was observed (P < .001). More than 90% mortality was seen in patients of ≥ 60 years of age. Significant inverse correlation was found between the hospital volume (Odds Ratio: 0.40) and in-hospital mortality rate following RP. High volume surgeons (≥ 16) and high volume hospitals (≥ 26) had significantly lower mortality (Odds Ratio: 0.32) and shorter in-hospital stay in comparison to low volume surgeons and hospitals. CONCLUSION: There is an exponential increase in the number of RPs with an increasing trend towards laparoscopic RP in England. This study showed a significant inverse correlation between provider volume (hospital and surgeon) and outcome (in-hospital mortality and hospital stay) for RP in England; thus, supporting the recommendations for centralization of care for complex radical procedures, including RP.

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INTRODUCTION: Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is probably the most potent biological toxin that can affect humans. Since its discovery by Justinus Kerner, BoNT has seen use in a wide range of cosmetic and non-cosmetic conditions such as cervical dystonia, cerebral palsy, migraines and hyperhidrosis. We tried to trace its history from its inception to its recent urological applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Historical articles about botulinum toxin were reviewed and a Medline search was performed for its urological utility. We hereby present a brief review of historical aspects of BoNT and its applications in urology. RESULTS: In 1793, the first known outbreak of botulism occurred due to 'spoiled' sausage in Wildebad, Germany. The German physician and poet Justinus Kerner published the first accurate description of the clinical symptoms of botulism (sausage poison). He was also the first to mention its potential therapeutic applications. In urology, BoNT has been used in bladder and urethral lesions with varying degree of success. Recently, BoNT applications were explained for prostatic disorders. BoNT applications in urology are in the treatment of detrusor external sphincter dyssynergia, detrusor overactivity, detrusor underactivity, spastic conditions of the urethral sphincter, chronic prostate pain, interstitial cystitis, non-fibrotic bladder outflow obstruction (including benign prostatic hyperplasia) and acute urinary retention in women. CONCLUSION: Justinus Kerner is the godfather of botulism research. The role of BoNT in urology has evolved exponentially and it is widely used as an adjuvant in voiding dysfunction. In the future, its utility will broaden and guide the urologist in managing various urological disorders.

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INTRODUCTION: Complex surgical procedures are associated with higher mortality and morbidity. There is a paucity of data supporting a volume-outcome relationship in the United Kingdom. We analysed Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) to contemplate the association of hospital provider volume and short-term outcomes (mortality rate and hospital stay) for 3 radical urological procedures in England. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The HES database was extracted for radical prostatectomy (RP), radical cystectomy (RC) and radical nephrectomy (RN) using ICD-10 and OPCS-4 codes for 7 years. Hospitals were divided into quartiles depending on the annual hospital volume. The impact of hospital provider volume was analysed for outcomes. RESULTS: Overall 43,946 patients were included in the study. RP patients had the lowest mortality rate (0.2%) and shorter in-patient stay (7 days). Mortality from RC and RN were 475 (5.3%) and 537 (2.6%), respectively. There was no significant difference for mortality following RP in four volume groups (p = 0.76). The mortality rate for RC decreased from 6.9% in the very low-volume group to 4.1% in the high-volume group (p < 0.001) without change in the in-hospital stay. The proportion of patients treated at high-volume centres for RP, RC and RN has increased from 0 to 42, 22 to 35 and 10 to 38%, respectively, over a 7-year study period. CONCLUSION: In England, hospital provider volume has a significant impact on outcome measures for radical pelvic urological procedures with a lower mortality (RC) and shorter in-patient stay (RP). Thus HES data from England support the hospital volume-outcome relationship and emphasise the centralisation of care for radical urological procedures.

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PURPOSE: The Raman spectroscopic technology can be utilized for the detection of changes occurring at the molecular level during the pathological transformation of the tissue. The potential of its use in urology is still in its infancy and increasing utility of this technology will transform noninvasive tissue diagnosis. The Nobel laureate, Sir C.V. Raman is credited for the discovery of the principles of Raman spectroscopy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Applications of Raman spectroscopy in the bladder, renal, prostate, and other urological disorders were gathered from Medline and abstracts from recent international urological meetings. Current status and future directions of Raman spectroscopy in urology were also reviewed. RESULTS: Raman spectroscopic technology is used to interrogate biological tissues. The potential use of this technology in urology has shown encouraging results in the in vitro diagnosis and grading of cancers of the bladder and the prostate. Raman microprobes have been used for the characterization and identification of renal lithiasis. Technology may be available for the urologists to determine the margin status intraoperatively during partial nephrectomy and radical prostatectomy. The future would see the development of optical fiber probes to incorporate them into catheters, endoscopes, and laparoscopes that will enable the urologist to obtain information during the operation. CONCLUSION: Raman spectroscopy is an exciting tool for real-time diagnosis and in vivo evaluation of living tissue. The potential applications of Raman spectroscopy may herald a new future in the management of various malignant, premalignant, and other benign conditions in urology.

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OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the use of topical glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) ointment as an adjunct to periprostatic nerve block in reducing pain associated with transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS)-guided prostatic biopsy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In all, 148 consecutive patients (mean age 67.0 years) having their first TRUS-guided biopsy were randomized to receive either 0.2% GTN ointment or placebo 10 min before biopsy. All patients had a biopsy preceded by an injection with 10 mL of 1% lidocaine local anaesthesia. A 10-point visual analogue score was used to record 'Overall discomfort due to the presence of the probe', the biopsy itself and pain after the procedure. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in age, PSA level and prostate volume between the groups. There was a significantly lower mean pain score due to probe insertion in the GTN than placebo group (1.94 vs 3.24, P < 0.01); pain perception was lower for the whole procedure in the GTN group, and was most pronounced in men aged <60 years (2.13 vs 4.61, P < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Topical GTN ointment is safe and effective in reducing the discomfort associated with TRUS-guided biopsy of the prostate, in particular the insertion of the ultrasound probe. It might be of maximum benefit in the younger patient and those having a repeat biopsy who previously failed to tolerate the procedure well.

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Hernia through the suprapubic catheterization (SPC) site is rare. Attention is required for such hernias as they get obstructed due to the narrow neck. We report this rare presentation in an elderly gentleman with obstructed incisional hernia through the SPC site, which was reduced and subsequently had a successful mesh repair.

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