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Tc toxins are virulence factors of bacterial pathogens. Although their structure and intoxication mechanism are well understood, it remains elusive where this large macromolecular complex is assembled and how it is released. Here we show by an integrative multiscale imaging approach that Yersinia entomophaga Tc (YenTc) toxin components are expressed only in a subpopulation of cells that are 'primed' with several other potential virulence factors, including filaments of the protease M66/StcE. A phage-like lysis cassette is required for YenTc release; however, before resulting in complete cell lysis, the lysis cassette generates intermediate 'ghost' cells, which may serve as assembly compartments and become packed with assembled YenTc holotoxins. We hypothesize that this stepwise mechanism evolved to minimize the number of cells that need to be killed. The occurrence of similar lysis cassettes in diverse organisms indicates a conserved mechanism for Tc toxin release that may apply to other extracellular macromolecular machines.

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Biodiversity collections are experiencing a renaissance fueled by the intersection of informatics, emerging technologies, and the extended use and interpretation of specimens and archived databases. In this article, we explore the potential for transformative research in ecology integrating biodiversity collections, stable isotope analysis (SIA), and environmental informatics. Like genomic DNA, SIA provides a common currency interpreted in the context of biogeochemical principles. Integration of SIA data across collections allows for evaluation of long-term ecological change at local to continental scales. Challenges including the analysis of sparse samples, a lack of information about baseline isotopic composition, and the effects of preservation remain, but none of these challenges is insurmountable. The proposed research framework interfaces with existing databases and observatories to provide benchmarks for retrospective studies and ecological forecasting. Collections and SIA add historical context to fundamental questions in freshwater ecological research, reference points for ecosystem monitoring, and a means of quantitative assessment for ecosystem restoration.

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The Southern Ocean is a major sink of atmospheric CO2, but the nature and magnitude of its variability remains uncertain and debated. Estimates based on observations suggest substantial variability that is not reproduced by process-based ocean models, with increasingly divergent estimates over the past decade. We examine potential constraints on the nature and magnitude of climate-driven variability of the Southern Ocean CO2 sink from observation-based air-sea O2 fluxes. On interannual time scales, the variability in the air-sea fluxes of CO2 and O2 estimated from observations is consistent across the two species and positively correlated with the variability simulated by ocean models. Our analysis suggests that variations in ocean ventilation related to the Southern Annular Mode are responsible for this interannual variability. On decadal time scales, the existence of significant variability in the air-sea CO2 flux estimated from observations also tends to be supported by observation-based estimates of O2 flux variability. However, the large decadal variability in air-sea CO2 flux is absent from ocean models. Our analysis suggests that issues in representing the balance between the thermal and non-thermal components of the CO2 sink and/or insufficient variability in mode water formation might contribute to the lack of decadal variability in the current generation of ocean models. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean: the state of the art and future priorities'.

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Multicellular organisms require controlled intercellular communication for their survival. Strains of the filamentous cyanobacterium Nostoc regulate cell-cell communication between sister cells via a conformational change in septal junctions. These multi-protein cell junctions consist of a septum spanning tube with a membrane-embedded plug at both ends, and a cap covering the plug on the cytoplasmic side. The identities of septal junction components are unknown, with exception of the protein FraD. Here, we identify and characterize a FraD-interacting protein, SepN, as the second component of septal junctions in Nostoc. We use cryo-electron tomography of cryo-focused ion beam-thinned cyanobacterial filaments to show that septal junctions in a sepN mutant lack a plug module and display an aberrant cap. The sepN mutant exhibits highly reduced cell-cell communication rates, as shown by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments. Furthermore, the mutant is unable to gate molecule exchange through septal junctions and displays reduced filament survival after stress. Our data demonstrate the importance of controlling molecular diffusion between cells to ensure the survival of a multicellular organism.

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Contractile injection systems (CISs) mediate cell-cell interactions by phage tail-like structures, using two distinct modes of action: extracellular CISs are released into the medium, while type 6 secretion systems (T6SSs) are attached to the cytoplasmic membrane and function upon cell-cell contact. Here, we characterized a CIS in the multicellular cyanobacterium Anabaena, with features distinct from extracellular CISs and T6SSs. Cryo-electron tomography of focused ion beam-milled cells revealed that CISs were anchored in thylakoid membrane stacks, facing the cell periphery. Single particle cryo-electron microscopy showed that this unique in situ localization was mediated by extensions of tail fibre and baseplate components. On stress, cyanobacteria induced the formation of ghost cells, presenting thylakoid-anchored CISs to the environment. Functional assays suggest that these CISs may mediate ghost cell formation and/or interactions of ghost cells with other organisms. Collectively, these data provide a framework for understanding the evolutionary re-engineering of CISs and potential roles of these CISs in cyanobacterial programmed cell death.

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Cells have to erect and sustain an organized and dynamically adaptable structure for an efficient mode of operation that allows drastic morphological changes during cell growth and cell division. These manifold tasks are complied by the so-called cytoskeleton and its associated proteins. In bacteria, FtsZ and MreB, the bacterial homologs to tubulin and actin, respectively, as well as coiled-coil-rich proteins of intermediate filament (IF)-like function to fulfil these tasks. Despite generally being characterized as Gram-negative, cyanobacteria have a remarkably thick peptidoglycan layer and possess Gram-positive-specific cell division proteins such as SepF and DivIVA-like proteins, besides Gram-negative and cyanobacterial-specific cell division proteins like MinE, SepI, ZipN (Ftn2) and ZipS (Ftn6). The diversity of cellular morphologies and cell growth strategies in cyanobacteria could therefore be the result of additional unidentified structural determinants such as cytoskeletal proteins. In this article, we review the current advances in the understanding of the cyanobacterial cell shape, cell division and cell growth.

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Uromodulin is the most abundant protein in human urine, and it forms filaments that antagonize the adhesion of uropathogens; however, the filament structure and mechanism of protection remain poorly understood. We used cryo-electron tomography to show that the uromodulin filament consists of a zigzag-shaped backbone with laterally protruding arms. N-glycosylation mapping and biophysical assays revealed that uromodulin acts as a multivalent ligand for the bacterial type 1 pilus adhesin, presenting specific epitopes on the regularly spaced arms. Imaging of uromodulin-uropathogen interactions in vitro and in patient urine showed that uromodulin filaments associate with uropathogens and mediate bacterial aggregation, which likely prevents adhesion and allows clearance by micturition. These results provide a framework for understanding uromodulin in urinary tract infections and in its more enigmatic roles in physiology and disease.

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Cryo-electron tomography (cryoET) has become a powerful technique at the interface of structural biology and cell biology, due to its unique ability for imaging cells in their native state and determining structures of macromolecular complexes in their cellular context. A limitation of cryoET is its restriction to relatively thin samples. Sample thinning by cryo-focused ion beam (cryoFIB) milling has significantly expanded the range of samples that can be analyzed by cryoET. Unfortunately, cryoFIB milling is low-throughput, time-consuming and manual. Here, we report a method for fully automated sequential cryoFIB preparation of high-quality lamellae, including rough milling and polishing. We reproducibly applied this method to eukaryotic and bacterial model organisms, and show that the resulting lamellae are suitable for cryoET imaging and subtomogram averaging. Since our method reduces the time required for lamella preparation and minimizes the need for user input, we envision the technique will render previously inaccessible projects feasible.

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Multicellular lifestyle requires cell-cell connections. In multicellular cyanobacteria, septal junctions enable molecular exchange between sister cells and are required for cellular differentiation. The structure of septal junctions is poorly understood, and it is unknown whether they are capable of controlling intercellular communication. Here, we resolved the in situ architecture of septal junctions by electron cryotomography of cryo-focused ion beam-milled cyanobacterial filaments. Septal junctions consisted of a tube traversing the septal peptidoglycan. Each tube end comprised a FraD-containing plug, which was covered by a cytoplasmic cap. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching showed that intercellular communication was blocked upon stress. Gating was accompanied by a reversible conformational change of the septal junction cap. We provide the mechanistic framework for a cell junction that predates eukaryotic gap junctions by a billion years. The conservation of a gated dynamic mechanism across different domains of life emphasizes the importance of controlling molecular exchange in multicellular organisms.

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Electron cryotomography is able to visualize macromolecular complexes in their cellular context, in a frozen-hydrated state, and in three dimensions. The method, however, is limited to relatively thin samples. Cryo-focused ion beam (FIB) milling is emerging as a powerful technique for sample thinning prior to cryotomography imaging. Previous cryo-FIB milling reports utilized custom-built non-standard equipment. Here we present a workflow and the required commercially available instrumentation to either implement the method de novo, or as an upgrade of pre-existing dual beam milling instruments. We introduce two alternative protocols and the respective sample holders for milling. The "bare grid holder" allows for milling on plain grids, having the advantage of enabling relatively shallow milling angles for wedge geometries. The "Autogrid holder" is designed for milling grids clamped into a mechanical support ring (Autogrid), resulting in increased stability for lamella geometries. We applied the workflow to prepare samples and record high-quality tomograms of diverse model organisms, including infected and uninfected HeLa cells, amoebae, yeast, multicellular cyanobacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli cells. The workflow will contribute to the dissemination of electron cryotomography of cryo-FIB milled samples in the biological sciences.

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Contractile injection systems mediate bacterial cell-cell interactions by a bacteriophage tail-like structure. In contrast to extracellular systems, the type 6 secretion system (T6SS) is defined by intracellular localization and attachment to the cytoplasmic membrane. Here we used cryo-focused ion beam milling, electron cryotomography, and functional assays to study a T6SS in Amoebophilus asiaticus The in situ architecture revealed three modules, including a contractile sheath-tube, a baseplate, and an anchor. All modules showed conformational changes upon firing. Lateral baseplate interactions coordinated T6SSs in hexagonal arrays. The system mediated interactions with host membranes and may participate in phagosome escape. Evolutionary sequence analyses predicted that T6SSs are more widespread than previously thought. Our insights form the basis for understanding T6SS key concepts and exploring T6SS diversity.

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The unique property of electron cryotomography (ECT) is its capability to resolve the structure of macromolecular machines in their cellular context. The integration of ECT data with high-resolution structures of purified subcomplexes and live-cell fluorescence light microscopy can generate pseudo-atomic models that lead to a mechanistic understanding across size and time scales. Recent advances in electron detection, sample thinning, data acquisition, and data processing have significantly enhanced the applicability and performance of ECT. Here we describe a detailed workflow for an ECT experiment, including cell culture, vitrification, data acquisition, data reconstruction, tomogram analysis, and subtomogram averaging. This protocol provides an entry point to the technique for students and researchers and indicates the many possible variations arising from specific target properties and the available instrumentation.

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OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of different types of modifications with resin on fatigue resistance and failure behavior of CAD-CAM resin nano ceramic (RNC) restorations for maxillary first premolars. METHODS: Sixty standardized resin composite root dies received CAD-CAM RNC endocrowns (n=30) and crowns (n=30) (Lava Ultimate, 3M Espe). Restorations were divided into six groups: full anatomic endocrowns (group A) and crowns (group D), buccal resin veneered endocrowns (group B) and crowns (group E) and buccal resin veneered endocrowns (group C) and crowns (group F) with a central groove resin filling. A nano-hybrid resin composite was used to veneer the restorations (Filtek Supreme, 3M Espe). All specimens were first submitted to thermo-mechanical cyclic loading (1.7Hz, 49N, 600000 cycles, 1500 thermo-cycles) and then submitted to cyclic isometric stepwise loading (5Hz) until completion of 105000 cycles or failure after 5000 cycles at 200N, followed by 20000 cycles at 400N, 600N, 800N, 1000N and 1200N. In case of fracture, fragments were analyzed using SEM and modes of failure were determined. Results were statistically analyzed by Kaplan-Meier life survival analysis and log rank test (p=0.05). RESULTS: The differences in survival between groups were not statistically significant, except between groups D and F (p=0.039). Endocrowns fractured predominantly with a mesio-distal wedge-opening fracture (82%). Partial cusp fractures were observed above all in crowns (70%). Analysis of the fractured specimens revealed that the origin of the fracture was mainly at the occlusal contact points of the stepwise loading. SIGNIFICANCE: Veneering of CAD-CAM RNC restorations has no influence on their fatigue resistance except when monolithic crowns are modified on their occlusal central groove.

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Many benthic marine animal populations are established and maintained by free-swimming larvae that recognize cues from surface-bound bacteria to settle and metamorphose. Larvae of the tubeworm Hydroides elegans, an important biofouling agent, require contact with surface-bound bacteria to undergo metamorphosis; however, the mechanisms that underpin this microbially mediated developmental transition have been enigmatic. Here, we show that a marine bacterium, Pseudoalteromonas luteoviolacea, produces arrays of phage tail-like structures that trigger metamorphosis of H. elegans. These arrays comprise about 100 contractile structures with outward-facing baseplates, linked by tail fibers and a dynamic hexagonal net. Not only do these arrays suggest a novel form of bacterium-animal interaction, they provide an entry point to understanding how marine biofilms can trigger animal development.

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Primary hyperoxaluria type-1 (PH1) is a rare inherited autosomal recessive disorder in which a deficiency of the hepatic enzyme alanine-glyoxylate aminotransferase leads to endogenous oxalate overproduction, renal failure, systemic oxalate deposition and death. As hemodialysis provides insufficient oxalate clearance, patients ultimately require both liver and kidney transplantation for correction of the metabolic abnormality and oxalate excretion. Herein, we describe a young adult male with end-stage renal disease and systemic oxalosis causing progressive disabling multi-organ dysfunction while awaiting transplantation. We review the literature regarding liver-kidney transplantation and suggest that for patients with PH1, a standardized assessment of organ dysfunction and functional impairment may improve identification of patients requiring urgent transplantation thereby reducing the morbidity and mortality that can occur with delayed transplantation.

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OBJECTIVE: To identify any adverse effects on health or performance in young dairy calves fed clinoptilolite mixed with milk replacer. ANIMALS: 26 male Holstein calves (1 to 7 days old). PROCEDURES: Twice daily for 28 days, calves were fed milk replacer with no clinoptilolite (control group; n=8), 0.5% clinoptilolite (low-dosage group; 9), or 2% clinoptilolite (high-dosage group; 9); each calf consumed approximately 12% of its body weight (based on the replacer solids in the milk replacer mixture)/d. For each calf, subjective health assessments, weight and rectal temperature measurements, and CBC and serum biochemical analyses were performed at intervals. All calves underwent necropsy. RESULTS: 2 calves were euthanized during the experiment because of bronchopneumonia or enteritis. Body weight and average daily gain did not differ among treatment groups. The percentage of monocytes and serum total protein concentration in the low-dosage group were higher than values in the control and high-dosage groups. Compared with values for either clinoptilolite-treated group, BUN concentration was greater in the control group. Serum globulin concentration differed significantly among groups (2.77, 2.50, and 2.36 g/dL in the low-dosage, control, and high-dosage groups, respectively). At necropsy, gross lesions associated with clinoptilolite treatment were not detected in any of the calves. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Even under stressful conditions, clinoptilolite fed at low or high dosages did not affect the performance of dairy calves and had no negative effect on WBC count and blood metabolite concentrations and enzyme activities. Clinoptilolite ingestion was not associated with treatment-specific gross changes.

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A teaser bull is a term describing a bull whose reproductive system has been surgically altered to render him sterile. The purpose of such bulls is to aid in detection of cows in estrus to facilitate when to artificially inseminate. The bull is sterilized by either vasectomy or caudal epididymectomy. In addition to sterilization, other surgical options are described that prevent intromission and the spread of venereal disease. This article describes briefly some of those options. The procedures described are those preferred by the authors and can be performed in the field. Some of the pros and cons of these procedures are discussed.

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OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the anesthetic and cardiorespiratory effects of two doses of intramuscular (IM) xylazine/ketamine in alpacas, and to determine if tolazoline would reduce the anesthetic recovery time. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective randomized crossover study. ANIMALS: Six castrated male alpacas. METHODS: Each alpaca received a low dose (LD) (0.8 mg kg(-1) xylazine and 8 mg kg(-1) ketamine IM) and high dose (HD) (1.2 mg kg(-1) xylazine and 12 mg kg(-1) ketamine IM) with a minimum of one week between trials. Time to sedation, duration of lateral recumbency and analgesia, pulse rate, respiratory rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation, arterial blood pressure, blood-gases, and the electrocardiogram were monitored and recorded during anesthesia. With each treatment three alpacas were randomly selected to receive tolazoline (2 mg kg(-1) IM) after 30 minutes of lateral recumbency. RESULTS: Onset of sedation, lateral recumbency and analgesia was rapid with both treatments. The HD was able to provide > or =30 minutes of anesthesia in five of six alpacas. The LD provided > or =30 minutes of anesthesia in three of six alpacas. Respiratory depression and hypoxemia occurred with the HD treatment during the first 10 minutes of lateral recumbency: two animals were severely hypoxemic and received nasal oxygen for 5 minutes. Heart rate decreased, but there were no significant changes in arterial blood pressure. Tolazoline significantly shortened the duration of recumbency with the HD. CONCLUSIONS: The HD provided more consistent clinical effects in alpacas than the LD. Intramuscular tolazoline shortened the duration of lateral recumbency in alpacas anesthetized with the HD combination. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Both doses of the combination were effective in providing restraint in alpacas and the duration of restraint was dose dependent. Supplemental oxygen should be available if using the HD and IM administration of tolazoline will shorten the recovery time.

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OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the anesthetic and cardiorespiratory effects of two doses of intramuscular xylazine/ketamine in llamas, and to determine if an intramuscular injection of tolazoline would shorten the anesthesia recovery time. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective randomized study. ANIMALS: Six castrated male llamas. METHODS: Each llama received a low dose (LD) (0.4 mg kg(-1) xylazine and 4 mg kg(-1) ketamine) and high dose (HD) (0.8 mg kg(-1) xylazine and 8 mg kg(-1) ketamine). Time to sedation, duration of lateral recumbency and analgesia, pulse, respiratory rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation, arterial blood pressure, blood gases, and the electrocardiogram were monitored and recorded during anesthesia. Three llamas in each treatment were randomized to receive intramuscular tolazoline (2 mg kg(-1)) after 30 minutes of lateral recumbency. RESULTS: Onset of sedation, lateral recumbency, and analgesia was rapid with both treatments. The HD was able to provide at least 30 minutes of anesthesia in all six llamas. The LD provided only 30 minutes of anesthesia in two out of six llamas. Respiratory depression and hypoxemia were seen in the HD treatment during the first 10 minutes of lateral recumbency. Two llamas were severely hypoxemic during this period and were given nasal oxygen for five minutes. Heart rate decreased, but there were no significant changes in blood pressure. Tolazoline significantly shortened the duration of recumbency in the HD treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The HD provided more consistent clinical effects in llamas than did the LD. Intramuscular tolazoline shortens the duration of lateral recumbency in llamas anesthetized with this combination. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Both doses appear to be very effective in providing restraint in llamas. The LD may be used for procedures requiring a short period of anesthesia or restraint. The HD could be used when a longer duration of anesthesia is desired. Supplemental oxygen should be available if using the HD. Tolazoline (IM) shortened the recovery time with this combination in llamas.

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A series of substituted pyrazinoic acid esters has been prepared and examined for their in vitro activity against Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium kansasii as well as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Modification of both the pyrazine nucleus and the ester functionality have been very successful in expanding the activity of pyrazinamide to include M. avium and M. kansasii, organisms normally not susceptible to pyrazinamide. Several of these compounds have activities 100-1000-fold greater than that of pyrazinamide against M. tuberculosis.

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