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The Conners' Parent Rating Scales (CPRS) have undergone a considerable amount of scrutiny--and subsequent refining, reshaping, and revising--since their development in 1970. While such longitudinal scrutiny has ultimately led to a more reliable, valid assessment tool, it has left behind a wake of literature filled with misinformation and ambiguity. Multiple versions of the Conners' Rating Scales (CRS), their misuse, and inaccurate reporting by researchers have created a body of literature that is difficult to interpret and misleading to both researchers and clinicians. This review is aimed at clarifying issues regarding the proper use of the CPRS as both a diagnostic instrument and a research tool.

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This study assesses the test-retest reliability of the revised Advanced Psychodiagnostic Interpretation (API) scoring system for the Bender Gestalt Test (BGT). The API system identifies 207 possible distortions in a BGT protocol. Test-retest reliability for 40 schizophrenic patients tested twice with a mean interval of 6.4 years (SD=3.8 years) was good, ranging from .71 to .80. Further reliability and validity studies are needed to further demonstrate the effectiveness of the system.

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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most commonly diagnosed disorder in children today with estimated prevalence rates falling between 3 and 5% of children (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). From inception, research has focused on studying varying facets of this disorder with initial efforts primarily focusing on treatment outcome. However, prominent efforts have been made in recent research efforts to shed light on the etiology of this disorder. Such research has discovered the contribution of genetic inheritance, as well as environmental factors that lead to the development of this disorder. Furthermore, studies using neurological and neuropsychological assessment measures have implicated the involvement of various Parts of the brain. This article critically reviews this body of research in light of its impact on the current specific neuropsychologically based etiological theories, as well as the most beneficial directions for future research.

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The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Third Edition (LNNB-III) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III). Participants were 85 adults referred for neuropsychological evaluation. The mean age of participants was 38.73 years (SD = 16.54) and average education was 13.07 years (SD = 2.60). The sample was predominantly female (52.9%), right-handed (86.3%), and Caucasian (68.6%), with the remainder of the population classified as Hispanic (13.7%), African-American (5.9%), or other (11.8%). Diagnoses included 26% psychiatric disorders, 64% neurological disorders, and 10% with no diagnosis. Pearson product correlation yielded a number of significant relationships between the WAIS-III IQ scores and the LNNB-III scales. The highest correlations were with the LNNB Intelligence, Visual-Spatial, Complex Auditory, and Arithmetic scales. Additionally, significant correlations were found between the WAIS-III subtests and a moderate proportion of the LNNB-III subtests. Correlations were also reported for the new WAIS-III scales, Letter-Number Sequencing and Matrix Reasoning. The results suggest that similar abilities are being assessed on both tests. These findings allow clinicians to not only evaluate the consistency of performance across this testing battery, but provide a useful screening instrument for intelligence.

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The present investigation examined neuropsychological functioning in 50 male batterers court-ordered into treatment and 23 nonpatient controls. Subjects were administered a neuropsychological screening battery consisting of the Screening Test for the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, the Stroop Color and Word Test, two memory subtests from the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-III (Figural Memory and Delayed Figural Memory), and two subtests from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (Trails A & B). Subjects were categorized as having neuropsychological dysfunction if their scores exceeded the statistical cut offs on two or more subtests. Results indicated that 24 (48%) of the male batterers exhibited cognitive dysfunction, as compared to only 1 (4.3%) of the nonpatient controls. Inspection of individual neuropsychological measures indicated poorer performance across all subtests for impaired male batterers as compared to both nonimpaired batterers and normal controls. In contrast, no significant differences on any of these measures emerged between nonimpaired male batterers and normal controls. Implications for the appropriate screening and treatment of male batterers are discussed.

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In order to better understand whether adolescents with early onset conduct disorder are predisposed to this disorder because of neurological problems, the present study compared the performance of early onset conduct disordered adolescents to adolescents with left hemisphere and right hemisphere brain injuries and normal controls. It was hypothesized that adolescents with early onset conduct disorder would perform similar to adolescents with left hemisphere injury, confirming theories that neurological dysfunction may predispose children to the development of conduct disorder. Fifteen adolescents with conduct disorder were compared on a battery of cognitive tests to 12 left hemisphere brain injured, 11 right hemisphere brain injured, and 15 normal middle school adolescents. F-tests indicated that there were significant differences among the four groups on all measures (p < .01). According to a series of t-tests on each of the nine cognitive measures, there were no differences found between the early onset conduct disordered subjects and the left hemisphere subjects. The early onset conduct disordered group performed worse than the right hemisphere group on 7 of the 9 comparisons, and worse than the normals on 9 of 9 comparisons. The normal group performed better than all three of the other groups. These results demonstrate that the pattern of neuropsychological performance by early onset conduct disordered adolescents was similar to that of left hemisphere injured adolescents and different from that of the right hemisphere injured and normal adolescents. Potential applications of this research include describing new approaches to treatment of this disorder based on their similarity with the left hemisphere brain injured group.

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The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between recent and long term substance use on adolescents' neuropsychological functioning. Subjects were 77 adolescents who were referred for outpatient treatment for drug and conduct problems. Subjects were administered the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-III, structured interviews to assess substance use, and urine tests. Subjects were divided into neuropsychologically impaired and nonimpaired groups. Results indicated no significant group differences for: self-reports of lifetime use of alcohol, cannabis, and hard drugs; self or collateral reports of recent (past 30 days) use of alcohol, cannabis, and hard drugs; or urinalysis detection of alcohol, cannabis, and hard drugs. Correlations between these dependent measures of substance use and neuropsychological functioning were also nonsignificant (all ps > .05). Although neuropsychological impairment was observed for some subjects in this sample, it was unrelated to their cannabis, hard drug, or alcohol use. These results are consistent with those found in the adult literature, given the relatively short period of time that these youth have used such substances. However, given the severity of their absolute levels of substance usage, they may be at greater risk for developing future neuropsychological problems, related directly to the ingestion of alcohol and illicit drugs, and to their secondary effects (e.g., head traumas, malnutrition).

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The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the concurrent validity of the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Third Edition (LNNB-III) memory scales with the WSM-R (study 1), as well as to investigate performance differences between brain-injured and nonbrain injured subjects on the LNNB-III memory indices, first trial learning, and learning curves of each scale (study 2). Study 1 had 90 subjects (46 males and 44 females). Study 2 had 228 subjects (109 normals and 119 brain-injured). Significant correlations were found between the LNNB-III memory scales and the WSM-R index scores. Findings also revealed poorer overall performance and initial learning of brain-injured subjects across all LNNB-III memory scales. Brain-injured subjects also demonstrated significantly reduced learning curves across repeated trials on two of the three scales. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

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While the Wisconsin Card Sort Test is a popular procedure used to evaluate executive functions, the test may take extended times to administer, especially in impaired clients. This has led to interest in the development of a short form of the test. Axelrod, Paolo, and Abraham (1997) earlier failed in an attempt to develop a short form of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test (WCST). The authors suggested that a regression-based approach might work better than their predictive model. In a sample of 145 consecutive subjects referred for neuropsychological testing, linear and nonlinear regression formulas were generated to predict the full 128 card version of the test from 32, 64, and 96 item versions of the test. Overall, the data obtained strongly suggests that multiple regression equations can reliably predict WCST whole test scores from a 64 or a 96-item version of the test, but not a 32-item version. The results indicate that the 64-item version is a clinically sound substitute for the entire test.

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The purpose of this research was to examine the clinical utility of the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Third Edition (LNNB-III) in estimating intellectual functioning as measured by the WAIS-R. Ninety-one subjects were administered the WAIS-R and the LNNB-III. Multiple regression were calculated to examine the ability of the LNNB-III clinical scales to predict FSIQ, VIQ, and PIQ indices. The LNNB-III General Intelligence Scale (GI) predicted FSIQ within 10 points 79% of the time, and within 15 points 97% of the time. Similarly, GI predicted VIQ and PIQ indices with 67% accuracy within 10 points and with 91% and 87% accuracy, respectively, within 15 points. A combination of LNNB clinical scales fared no better than GI alone when predicting the FSIQ index. However, a combination of LNNB-III scales predicted VIQ with 80% accuracy within 10 points and with 94% accuracy within 15 points. In contrast, a combination of LNNB-III clinical scales predicted the PIQ index 76% of the time within 10 points and 90% of the time within 15 points. GI appears to be a good alternative when an estimate of intellectual functioning is desired given its less than 10 minute administration time. When greater specificity regarding VIQ and PIQ estimates are desired, a combination of specific LNNB-III scales appear preferable.

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Although research has long recognized a relationship between neurological dysfunction and delinquency, the nature of this relationship is unclear. Based on the theory that there may be clusters of delinquents with different types of neurological dysfunction which contribute to the delinquency in different ways, the present research attempted to identify these subtypes using neuropsychological testing. Seventy-seven such adolescents were administered the full Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-III (LNNB-III) and a battery of assessments measuring behavioral functioning and substance use. A Hierarchical Cluster Analysis yielded four identifiable neuropsychological clusters: Verbal/Left-Hemispheric Deficits, Subcortical-Frontal Deficits, Mild-Verbal Deficits, and Normals. The distinctiveness of these subtypes was confirmed by univariate analyses. Results further indicated that the number of LNNB scales that were in the abnormal range differed per subtype, with each subtype differing significantly from one another. These neuropsychological subtypes were found to be associated with specific psychological and behavioral problems.

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This study assesses the interrater reliability of the revised Advanced Psychodiagnostic Interpretation (API) scoring system for the Bender Gestalt Test (BGT). The API scoring system identifies 207 possible distortions in a BGT protocol. Agreement across nine raters exceeded 90% for each of three clinical protocols. Kappa statistics indicated that the API system exhibited good interrater reliability. Further research is necessary in such areas as test-retest reliability and validity to further demonstrate the effectiveness of the procedure.

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This research presents data pertaining to the development of the recently revised Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-III. The final version of this test battery consists of 31 clinical scales yielding 35 scores. The battery was given to 109 non brain-injured controls and 119 brain-injured subjects. High internal consistency was demonstrated for each clinical scale. Results further indicated that the test battery was very effective at discriminating between normal and brain-injured subjects, as significant between-group differences on 33 of 35 scores were observed. Significant between-group differences were also observed on 25 of the 35 scores when age and education were covaried out of the analyses; those scales not displaying significant between-group differences generally measured very basic over-learned skills.

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The present study was an attempt to examine the relationship between the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R; Wechsler, 1987) and the Memory Assessment Scale (MAS; Williams, 1991). The sample consisted of 51 patients referred for neuropsychological examination. Average age was 55.29 (SD = 20.94). Average education was 11.94 years (SD = 3.18). Average Full Scale IQ was 94.75 (SD = 15.44). The results showed that no MAS index correlated higher than.60 with any of the WMS-R indices. There was minimal specific prediction between instruments across each memory domain. Agreement between the tests clinically was low as well. Corrections for such factors as age, education, intelligence or diagnosis lowered the relationships between the tests although not significantly. Corrections to the correlations for the inherent reliability of each test increased correlations between the tests but still resulted in a maximum common variance of 56% (for the visual measures) down to 40% (for General Memory). These results are consistent with the argument that "general memory" is not as useful a construct as that of "general intelligence" and that these tests of general memory measure different underlying constructs. This has important impact on how we conceive and report memory test results.

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This case study presents a multimodal treatment approach to the rehabilitation of a severely brain-injured adolescent exhibiting significant aggressive and noncompliant behaviors. All treatments were mass-rehearsed in an overly concrete manner, given her cognitive deficits. Specific interventions included contingency management, stimulus control, problem solving, social skills training, relaxation training, anger management, and parent training. Results indicated a significant reduction in delinquent and aggressive behaviors and in social and attention problems. This success was maintained at an 8-month follow-up. These findings may assist nurses, rehabilitation specialists, and families to better manage aggressive and noncompliant behaviors that frequently follow a traumatic brain injury.

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Although the Spanish version of the WAIS (Escala de Inteligencia Wechsler para Adultos, EIWA) is widely used as a measure of intelligence in Spanish-speaking populations, little is known about the psychometric characteristics of the test beyond the information given in the test manual. Despite this, users have assumed that the test functions clinically and statistically as does the original WAIS. This assumption has been applied to the area of short test forms which are assumed to be as valid as those used with the WAIS. The present study is an attempt to determine the optimal two-, three-, four-, and five-test short forms for estimation of Full Scale IQ based on the EIWA standardization test data. In addition, the relative amount of common and specific variance in the EIWA subtests was determined, along with the degree of measurement error. The study emphasizes the limitations of using the EIWA arising from its out-of-date norms, use of a restricted Spanish-speaking population, and failure to make updates since its introduction. These cautions suggest that the EIWA (long and short forms) should not be used for determining IQs; instead its use should be limited to research and to tracking cognitive changes over time.

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Although most clinicians would readily agree that there is a need for Spanish translations and normative samples of major psychological tests because of the large number of individuals within the United States whose primary language is Spanish, there are in fact few well normed tests applicable to the Spanish-speaking client in the U.S. As a result, many clinicians administer cognitive tests normed on English-speaking American populations translated into Spanish, then interpret the test results using the standard American norms. The argument is generally made that such a procedure is a reasonable approximation and when cautiously interpreted can be useful. The present study investigated the impact of this practice by using the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R) on Spanish-speaking adults. A group of 50 normal Hispanic Americans aged 25 to 34 years were administered the WMS-R translated into Spanish. Results showed that using English-language standard norms resulted in Spanish-speaking normal individuals getting scores an average of 1 standard deviation below "average." These findings were present not only for verbal but for nonverbal tests as well. Based on these results we strongly argue against the clinical practice of using translations of English language tests without renorming and running new validity tests.

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The Category Test (CT) and the Wisconsin Card Sort Test (WCST) have long been the major instruments used for the assessment of "frontal lobe" brain damage. These tests have often been used interchangeably by clinicians. However, research to date has disagreed on the extent to which these tests can be interpreted in a similar manner. The current paper examined the interrelationships between the tests in 112 mixed brain injured clients. The results showed relatively small correlations between the tests in the range of .4 to .6 which were eliminated when age, education, premorbid IQ (Vocabulary) and spatial skills (Block Design) were used as covariates. Regression analyses showed clear differences in which WAIS-R tests predicted each test, while factor analysis revealed little overlap between the tests except for a small relationship between the number of WCST categories completed and CT errors. The CT appeared to reflect spatial and spatial analysis skills while the WCST reflected verbal analysis and sequential skills. The results clearly indicate that the tests are not interchangeable and do not reflect the same underlying cognitive skills nor can they be interpreted in the same manner for neuropsychological purposes.

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The need for low cost, noninvasive procedures for aiding in the diagnosis and understanding of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) has led to theories and procedures examining the role of olfactory disorders because of the finding that the brains of AD patients invariably exhibit neuropathology in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. This loss correlates with the increase in the number of plaques and tangles and with the severity of dementia. Considered together, these findings suggest that brain structures closely related to the olfactory system demonstrate significant histopathology in AD. A comprehensive review of the literature pertaining to olfaction in persons with AD revealed that the olfactory identification ability of patients with memory disorders is impaired relative to controls. Consistency is lacking, however, when olfactory detection thresholds are investigated. Also, there is inconsistency in regards to severity of illness and olfactory function. In addition to differentiating AD patients from normals, the olfactory paradigm has shown some limited usefulness in differentiating AD patients from some other demented patients.

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Although the Spanish version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS; Escala de Inteligencia Wechsler para Adultos [EIWA]) is the most frequently used intellectual assessment for Spanish speaking clients in the United States, there is little information available on score differences necessary to establish reliable and abnormal differences between Performance IQ (PIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ), and between the various subtests of the EIWA. The present study, based on EIWA standardization data (N = 616 Puerto Ricans), reports reliability data and base rates to assist in evaluating the clinical significance of PIQ-VIQ differences. The results demonstrated substantial similarity between the EIWA and the English versions of the Wechsler tests. The interpretation of these differences is discussed, and tables are presented of statistically and clinically significant differences.

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