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The efficacy of different implicit death anxiety measures was examined. In Study 1 (N = 133), the death-word-fragment task (DWFT), commonly used to test death-thought accessibility in terror management theory (TMT) research, did not differentiate between mortality salience (MS) and control conditions. Instead, death-related word completions were associated with word dimensions other than MS induction. Study 2 (N = 155) tested three implicit measures (lexical-decision task, dot-probe task, ambiguous pictures task), which differentiated between conditions, revealing greater sensitivity than the DWFT. As TMT research widens its scope, investigating measures to capture implicit death concerns is important.
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Ansiedad , HumanosRESUMEN
PURPOSE: Further explore the utility of protection motivation theory (PMT) in developing effective roadside anti-speeding messages. METHOD: Via an electronic link, 81 participants holding a current Australian driver's license rated all possible pairs of 18 PMT-derived anti-speeding messages in terms of their perceived effectiveness in reducing speed for themselves, and for drivers in general. RESULTS: While some messages revealed third-person effects (perceived as being more relevant to drivers-in-general than to self-as-driver), others showed reverse third-person effects (perceived as being more relevant to self-as-driver than to drivers-in-general). Compared with messages based on coping appraisal components, those derived from threat appraisal PMT components (perceived severity, counter-rewards, vulnerability) were rated as being more effective, both for participants themselves as driver, and for drivers-in-general. Compared with females, males reported threat appraisal messages as being more effective for reducing speed in themselves (reverse third-person effect). Aggregate scores for the 18 messages derived from this ipsative methodology correlated modestly with those from a normative study using similarly-worded items. DISCUSSION: As jurisdictions globally recognize speeding as a major road safety issue, effective anti-speeding campaigns are essential. Findings added to current knowledge of PMT's efficacy as a basis for generating effective anti-speeding messages and indicated areas for future research and application.
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Conducción de Automóvil/psicología , Promoción de la Salud , Motivación , Adulto , Australia , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Castigo , Recompensa , Conducta de Reducción del Riesgo , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to explore perceived risk and reported willingness to engage in risky driving in a sample of young Australian drivers. The study also considered the influence of gender, driving experience, and risky driver prototypes on willingness to engage in risky driving. Within this context, a prototype is a social image of the type of person who engages in specific risk behaviors. In the prototype willingness model (PWM), willingness accounts for motivations that do not directly rely on planning or goal formation. METHODS: The PWM was applied to a sample of 554 drivers (aged 17-25â¯years) to explore how risky driver prototypes: similarity (extent of identification with the prototype), favorability (how positive is the image), and behavioral willingness, may influence their perceived risk and reported engagement in risky driving behaviors. Drivers holding an Australian driver's license (Provisional 1, Provisional 2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey measuring: 1) driver prototypes and behavioral willingness to engage in risky driving behaviors, 2) perceived risk of driving-related behaviors, and 3) the Behavior of Young Novice Drivers Scale transient and fixed violations subscales. RESULTS: Path analysis explored relationships between prototypes and willingness variables, perceived risk, and reported driving engagement. Goodness-of-fit statistics supported the conceptual model. Behavioral willingness showed the strongest relationship with perceived risk (negative) and reported driving violation engagement (positive). CONCLUSIONS: Risky driver prototypes and behavioral willingness, as well as driver's sex and driving experience, may help to explain individual differences in perceived risk, and young driver reported risky driving engagement. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Identifying relevant factors that could be amenable to change, such as driver prototype and willingness variables, may contribute to improved road safety initiatives, and provide information and support to counter factors that might otherwise facilitate young drivers' risk perceptions and risky driving engagement.
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Conducción de Automóvil/estadística & datos numéricos , Motivación , Asunción de Riesgos , Adolescente , Adulto , Australia , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
PURPOSE: Analyze qualitative and quantitative data to determine the relative effectiveness of theoretically-developed anti-speeding messages, as judged by relatively inexperienced and experienced drivers, both for themselves as a driver, and for drivers in general. METHOD: Eight focus groups and three individual interviews were conducted. Participants initially completed a questionnaire, ranking sets of three anti-speeding messages representing each of the six components of protection motivation theory (PMT). Participants were encouraged to write down the reasons for their rankings. During group and individual facilitation sessions, the rankings and reasons for them were discussed to identify salient reasons for participants' judgments. The ranking data were analyzed quantitatively, with individual and group-based comments being analyzed thematically. RESULTS: Quantitative analyses of message pairs revealed five third-person effects (TPEs). Three messages were perceived as more relevant to drivers in general than to the participant-as-driver while two were associated with reverse TPEs, which participants perceived as more relevant to themselves-as-driver than for drivers in general. For four PMT components (rewards, self-efficacy, response efficacy, response costs), one or more messages received significantly higher rankings than one or more other messages representing the same component. Substantial variation was found within the individual and group discussion comments in respect of nearly all the messages, reflecting different driver perspectives and demographics. DISCUSSION: A general preference for shorter messages was evident, leading to a revision of most of the messages comprising the stimuli for this study. On the basis of the focus group and interview responses, consideration was given as to which messages would be recommended for a pilot field study.
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Conducción de Automóvil , Comunicación , Conducta Peligrosa , Promoción de la Salud , Asunción de Riesgos , Accidentes de Tránsito/prevención & control , Adolescente , Adulto , Femenino , Grupos Focales , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Motivación , Proyectos Piloto , Recompensa , Autoeficacia , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
This research reports on the 4-phase development of the 25-item Five-Factor Model Adolescent Personality Questionnaire (FFM-APQ). The purpose was to develop and determine initial evidence for validity of a brief adolescent personality inventory using a vocabulary that could be understood by adolescents up to 18 years old. Phase 1 (N = 48) consisted of item generation and expert (N = 5) review of items; Phase 2 (N = 179) involved item analyses; in Phase 3 (N = 496) exploratory factor analysis assessed the underlying structure; in Phase 4 (N = 405) confirmatory factor analyses resulted in a 25-item inventory with 5 subscales.
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Personalidad , Psicología del Adolescente , Encuestas y Cuestionarios/normas , Adolescente , Análisis Factorial , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Trastornos de la Personalidad/diagnóstico , Inventario de Personalidad/estadística & datos numéricos , Psicometría/estadística & datos numéricos , Reproducibilidad de los ResultadosRESUMEN
PURPOSE: Using a young driver sample, this experimental study sought to identify which combinations of threat-appraisal (TA) and coping-appraisal (CA) messages derived from protection motivation theory (PMT) participants would judge as most effective for themselves, and for other drivers. METHOD: The criterion variable was reported intention to drive within a signed speed limit. All possible TA/CA combinations of 18 previously highly-rated anti-speeding messages were presented both simultaneously and sequentially. These represented PMT's three TA components: severity, vulnerability, and rewards, and three CA components: self-efficacy, response efficacy, and response costs. Eighty-eight young drivers (34 males) each rated 54 messages for perceived effectiveness for self and other drivers. RESULTS: Messages derived from the TA severity component were judged the most effective. Response cost messages were most effective for females. Reverse third-person effects were found for both females and males, which suggested that combining TA and CA components may increase the perceived relevance of anti-speeding messages for males. DISCUSSION: The findings have potential value for creating effective roadside anti-speeding messages, meriting further investigation in field studies.
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Conducción de Automóvil/psicología , Control Interno-Externo , Conducta de Reducción del Riesgo , Seguridad , Autoeficacia , Adaptación Psicológica , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Comunicación Persuasiva , Teoría Psicológica , Recompensa , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Intervention or evaluation studies represent a small proportion of traffic psychology research. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of a road safety intervention by measuring attitudes toward unsafe driving behaviors and risk perception. A sample of high school students (n=133) participated in a road safety intervention program focusing on attitudes and risk perceptions of young people as novice drivers, pre-drivers, and passengers. This sample was compared with a matched sample of students who did not take the program (n=172) on their attitudes and perceived risk toward unsafe driving, both prior to the program (T1), immediately after the program (T2), and at 6-week follow-up (T3). While no changes in attitudes toward unsafe driving were found for the control group, the intervention group reported riskier attitudes toward unsafe driving behaviors from T1 to T2 and T3. No differences were found from T1 to T3 in perceived risk toward unsafe driving for either the intervention or control groups. Implications of the study include encouraging a higher rate of road safety program evaluations, leading to better understanding of the effectiveness of road safety intervention programs and how they may be designed and delivered to ensure lower engagement in unsafe driving behaviors by young drivers.
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Accidentes de Tránsito/psicología , Actitud , Conducción de Automóvil/psicología , Asunción de Riesgos , Adolescente , Conducción de Automóvil/educación , Femenino , Humanos , Estudios Longitudinales , Masculino , Factores SexualesRESUMEN
Protection motivation theory components were used to predict sun protection behaviors (SPBs) using four outcome measures: typical reported behaviors, previous reported behaviors, current sunscreen use as determined by interview, and current observed behaviors (clothing worn) to control for common method bias. Sampled from two SE Queensland public beaches during summer, 199 participants aged 18-29 years completed a questionnaire measuring perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy, response costs, and protection motivation (PM). Personal perceived risk (similar to threat appraisal) and response likelihood (similar to coping appraisal) were derived from their respective PM components. Protection motivation predicted all four SPB criterion variables. Personal perceived risk and response likelihood predicted protection motivation. Protection motivation completely mediated the effect of response likelihood on all four criterion variables. Alternative models are considered. Strengths and limitations of the study are outlined and suggestions made for future research.
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Conductas Relacionadas con la Salud , Motivación , Protectores Solares/uso terapéutico , Adolescente , Adulto , Femenino , Conocimientos, Actitudes y Práctica en Salud , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
The study investigated the effects of anti-speeding messages based on protection motivation theory (PMT) components: severity, vulnerability, rewards, self-efficacy, response efficacy, and response cost, on reported speeding intentions. Eighty-three participants aged 18-25 years holding a current Australian driver's license completed a questionnaire measuring their reported typical and recent speeding behaviors. Comparisons were made between 18 anti-speeding messages used on Australian roads and 18 new anti-speeding messages developed from the PMT model. Participants reported their reactions to the 36 messages on the perceived effectiveness of the message for themselves and for the general population of drivers, and also the likelihood of themselves and other drivers driving within the speed limit after viewing each message. Overall the PMT model-derived anti-speeding messages were better than jurisdiction-use anti-speeding messages in influencing participants' reported intention to drive within the speed limit. Severity and vulnerability were the most effective PMT components for developing anti-speeding messages. Male participants reported significantly lower intention to drive within the speed limit than did female participants. However, males reported significantly higher intention to drive within the speed limit for PMT-derived messages compared with jurisdiction-based messages. Third-person effects were that males reported anti-speeding messages to be more effective for the general driving population than for themselves. Females reported the opposite effect - that all messages would be more effective for themselves than for the general driving population. Findings provided support for using a sound conceptual basis as an effective foundation for anti-speeding message development as well as for evaluating proposed anti-speeding messages on the target driver population.
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Conducción de Automóvil/psicología , Promoción de la Salud , Motivación , Conducta de Reducción del Riesgo , Adolescente , Adulto , Factores de Edad , Australia , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Proyectos Piloto , Recompensa , Autoeficacia , Factores Sexuales , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST), implementing Carver and White's behavior inhibition system (BIS) and behavior approach system (BAS) scales, was used to predict reported engagement in 10 risky driving behaviors: speeding (2 levels), driving under the influence of alcohol, racing other vehicles, cell phone use (hand-held and hands free), tailgating, unsafe overtaking, driving while fatigued, and not wearing a seatbelt. Participants were 165 young male and female (n=101) drivers aged 17-25 years who held a valid Australian driver's license. Effects of the explanatory variables and specific risk perceptions upon engagement in the reported risky driving behaviors were examined using SEM analyses. Also of interest was whether perceived risk mediated the relationship between the personality variables and reported engagement in risky driving behaviors. RST variables, negative reactivity, reward responsiveness and fun seeking, accounted for unique variance in young drivers' perceived risk. Reward responsiveness and perceived risk accounted for unique variance in young drivers' reported engagement in risky driving behaviors. Negative reactivity was completely mediated by perceived risk in its negative relationship with reported engagement. To better understand driving related risk decision making, future research could usefully incorporate drivers' motivation systems. This has the potential to lead to more tailored approaches to identifying risk-prone drivers and provide information for the development and implementation of media campaigns and educational programs.
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Conducción de Automóvil/psicología , Conducta Peligrosa , Inhibición Psicológica , Motivación , Refuerzo en Psicología , Asunción de Riesgos , Adolescente , Adulto , Estudios Transversales , Toma de Decisiones , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Modelos Estadísticos , Teoría Psicológica , Queensland , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
PROBLEM: A need was identified for a consistent set of safety climate factors to provide a basis for aviation industry benchmarking. METHOD: Six broad safety climate themes were identified from the literature and consultations with industry safety experts. Items representing each of the themes were prepared and administered to 940 Australian commercial pilots. RESULTS: Data from half of the sample (N=468) were used in an exploratory factor analysis that produced a 3-factor model of Management commitment and communication, Safety training and equipment, and Maintenance. A confirmatory factor analysis on the remaining half of the sample showed the 3-factor model to be an adequate fit to the data. DISCUSSION: The results of this study have produced a scale of safety climate for aviation that is both reliable and valid. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: This study developed a tool to assess the level of perceived safety climate, specifically of pilots, but may also, with minor modifications, be used to assess other groups' perceptions of safety climate.
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Aviación/normas , Administración de la Seguridad/normas , Pesos y Medidas , Adulto , Australia , Análisis Factorial , Encuestas Epidemiológicas , Humanos , Persona de Mediana Edad , Salud Laboral , Cultura Organizacional , Psicología IndustrialRESUMEN
This study analyses 2,765 cases of driving behaviours in three Australian states - New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Data were gathered from in-car coordinated video and audio recording sequences in free-flowing traffic along two-, three- and four-lane highways with varying speed limits on all days of the week in daylight and fine weather conditions. Explanatory variables included driver age group and gender, passenger characteristics and vehicle age and type. Response variables included driving violations and other driving behaviours, including lane use, speeding, close following (tailgating), driver's hands position and mobile phone use. Data were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. By focusing upon vehicle and driver characteristics, and their impact on driving behaviours, including identified violations, this study explores some implications both for future research and for traffic policy makers.