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OBJECTIVES: To determine whether transtympanic steroid administration may be an effective treatment for sudden onset sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) in patients for whom systemic steroid treatment has failed or who were not candidates for systemic steroids. METHODS: The standard medical regimen for SSNHL usually involves systemic steroid therapy. Unfortunately, some patients do not respond successfully to or are poorly tolerant of systemic steroids. Transtympanic administration of steroids has been suggested as an alternative to systemic therapy. A prospective study was designed to evaluate the hearing outcomes in SSNHL patients treated with transtympanic steroids. Patients received transtympanic steroids if oral steroids had failed to work or if they were not able to tolerate oral steroids. Transtympanic steroids were administered through a ventilation tube placed with the patient under local anesthesia. Steroid administration was performed on 4 separate occasions over the course of 10 to 14 days. Hearing was assessed immediately before therapy and within 1 to 2 weeks after therapy. RESULTS: Hearing improvement was documented in 10 of 23 patients (44%) who underwent transtympanic steroid administration. This represents a 44% hearing salvage in patients for whom steroid treatment would otherwise have been considered a failure. CONCLUSION: Transtympanic steroid therapy may be an alternative treatment for patients with SSNHL for whom systemic steroid therapy had failed or who could not tolerate systemic steroid therapy.

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OBJECTIVE: To characterize the appearance of the normal vestibular aqueduct on coronal computed tomography (CT). DESIGN: Retrospective evaluation of routine CT images of the temporal bones. SETTING: Private tertiary care center. PATIENTS: Twenty-four children and young adults (14 females and 10 males), aged 2 to 24 years (average age, 10 years). MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Axial CT images were evaluated for the size of the vestibular aqueduct as previously described. On coronal CT images the vestibular aqueduct was evaluated for shape, dimensions, and angle. These measurements were made posteriorly, at the first point of vestibular aqueduct definition, and anteriorly, where the vestibular aqueduct abuts the posterior semicircular canal. RESULTS: We were able to measure the vestibular aqueduct on 100% of the anterior coronal views, 77% of the midisthmus axial CT images, and 53% of posterior coronal CT images, (P<.001). The shape of the vestibular aqueduct on coronal CT scans varied posteriorly to anteriorly from being a slit to being an oval or round. The dimensions (mean + SD) of the isthmus on the anterior coronal views were 3.1 + 1.8 mm long by 1.6 + 0.8 mm wide. The upper limits of normal, as defined by the mean + 2 SDs, are 6.8 x 3.3 mm. CONCLUSIONS: We have easily and consistently identified the vestibular aqueduct on coronal CT images; in fact, we found the vestibular aqueducts more consistently measurable on coronal CT scans than on axial CT scans. The addition of these views may improve the sensitivity of the CT scan in the evaluation of sensorineural hearing loss in children.

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Meniere's disease is an idiopathic disorder of the inner ear characterized by the syndrome of endolymphatic hydrops, episodic vertigo, fluctuating hearing loss, tinnitus, and aural fullness. People with this disorder may be severely disabled. Medical therapy exists in the form of diuretics and dietary restriction of salt to minimize the fluid pressure in the labyrinth and cochlea. Treatment of allergies with desensitization and steroids has also shown to be effective in selected patients. Surgical therapies exist in two categories, conservative and ablative. Endolymphatic sac decompression with or without shunt placement remains highly effective and we feel that it should be the first line surgical therapy for patients who fail medical therapy. Ablative therapies include labyrinthectomy (medical or surgical) and vestibular neurectomy. Both of these procedures control the episodic vertigo by destroying vestibular function in the affected ear and should be reserved for patients who have persistent vertigo in spite of more conservative treatments.

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Meningiomas are slow-growing lesions that represent approximately 20% of all intracranial tumors and are the second most common tumor of the cerebellopontine angle. In contrast, primary extracranial meningiomas are found relatively infrequently, and most cases have inadequate radiologic studies to determine if they were actually an extension from a primary intracranial source. Meningiomas of the intratemporal segment of the facial nerve have also been reported, but they are exceedingly rare and their pathophysiology remains unclear. We report a case of a meningioma of the facial nerve in the fallopian canal of a 7-year-old girl and review pertinent literature.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility of perioperative erythropoietin to avoid blood transfusion in head and neck cancer surgery. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. METHODS: Ninety-nine patients undergoing surgical resection of head and neck tumors at our institution were assessed for demographic data, nutritional parameters, tumor/surgical information, hematological/transfusion data, and contraindications to erythropoietin. Each transfusion was classified as to its appropriateness, and the potential benefit of erythropoietin was assessed in each patient. A cost analysis was also performed. RESULTS: Most transfused patients (63%) received too many units. A subgroup at high risk of transfusion was identified who would benefit most from perioperative erythropoietin. Assuming that perioperative erythropoietin therapy is equivalent to the transfusion of 4 units, we estimate that the majority (741%) of transfused patients would not have required a transfusion if more stringent transfusion criteria were followed and those at high risk were given perioperative erythropoietin. Although the cost for transfusing 4 units is equivalent to that of a perioperative course of erythropoietin, the overall direct cost of erythropoietin treatment would actually have been more expensive. CONCLUSIONS: Perioperative erythropoietin therapy may be appropriate for a subgroup of head and neck cancer patients, but a prospective randomized controlled study in such a subgroup is needed to better define those most likely to benefit from it and to assess actual cost/benefit ratios.

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Controversy regarding the use of anticoagulants, the evacuation of the sinus, or the use of medical treatment alone surrounds the treatment of lateral sinus thrombosis. Treatment of an epidural abscess associated with coalescent mastoiditis is much less controversial-drainage is usually recommended. The differing treatments of these complications mandate accurate diagnosis. The advent of more sophisticated radiological studies has facilitated diagnosis of these complications; however, tests are not infallible. We present three cases in which preoperative imaging demonstrates an epidural abscess mimicking lateral sinus thrombosis by compression of the vessel. A false-positive computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study may lead to the wrong diagnosis and, consequently, improper treatment. In light of this possibility, we recommend surgical exploration in all such cases.

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There are many known causes of vertigo, but many cases remain unexplained. Sound-induced, pressure-induced, or positional vertigo caused by bony dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal into the middle cranial fossa is a newly described etiology of vertigo. Three case studies of patients with CT evidence and surgical confirmation of bony dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal with variable presentations are described. The history, symptoms, CT findings, vestibular studies, and method of surgical repair are presented. Two patients had disabling vertigo and one had no vestibular symptoms. All underwent exploration via a middle cranial fossa approach with repair of the dehiscence. The bony dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal of the asymptomatic patient was identified and closed at the time of an encephalocele repair procedure. All patients did well postoperatively and both patients with vertigo improved. Bony dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal may cause vertigo or be asymptomatic and should be added to the differential diagnosis of vertigo.

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The efficacy of hyaluronic acid (HA) foam in the prevention of middle ear adhesions and other structural abnormalities in guinea pigs undergoing experimental tympanoplasty was investigated. Postoperative changes in the middle ear were evaluated by light microscopy after 6 weeks. The presence of adhesions, diminution of airspace, new bone formation, tympanic membrane (TM) formation, and mucosal inflammation was characterized by an objective grading system. Results were compared to absorbable gelatin sponge (AGS) and a control group (no middle ear packing). The control group showed the best average scores for all parameters tested except for adhesion formation. However, these results were statistically significant only when compared with those of the AGS group for airspace preservation, new bone formation, and TM formation. Although the HA foam group showed better average results than did the AGS group for all parameters tested, none were statistically significant. Although HA foam appears to be a promising middle ear packing agent, further experimental trials are warranted before any firm conclusions may be made.

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OBJECTIVE: Auditory testing is not routinely performed within 4-6 weeks after stapedotomy, because hearing acuity is thought to be transiently depressed. In rare circumstances, postsurgical auditory and vestibular complaints may lead one to test hearing soon after stapedotomy. The early postoperative effects of carbon dioxide (CO2) and potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP) lasers, which now are routinely used to perform stapedotomies, have not been reported. The purpose of this report is to present normative data for auditory thresholds measured within 2 weeks of laser stapedotomy. STUDY DESIGN: The study design was a prospective, unblinded study. SETTING: The study was conducted at three academic medical centers. PATIENTS: Thirty-six subjects undergoing 38 stapedotomies for otosclerosis by 5 surgeons participated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Behavioral audiometry was performed using standard techniques beginning before surgery and continuing through > 1 year after surgery. RESULTS: The CO2 laser was used in 26 stapedotomies and the KTP laser was used in 12. Nine cases were revision procedures. Bone conduction pure-tone averages and speech discrimination scores did not worsen during the early postoperative period. Bone conduction at 250 and 4,000 Hz dropped slightly within the first 2 weeks (-4.3 and -6.7 dB) but recovered thereafter. Bone conduction at 1,000 Hz actually improved within the first week after surgery (+6.2 dB, p = 0.021). Significant improvements in air conduction thresholds (and air-bone gap) were seen at the second week and late audiometry. The results for CO2 and KTP laser-treated groups were not significantly different. CONCLUSIONS: Cochlear function is not significantly depressed in the early postoperative period after laser (CO2 or KTP) stapedotomy.

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Surgical intervention has been offered to patients with Meniere's disease who have failed medical treatment and have disabling symptoms. Surgical options have included labyrinthectomy (mechanical and chemical), vestibular neurectomy, and endolymphatic sac surgery with or without shunting. We present a modification of endolymphatic sac decompression surgery that includes wide decompression of the sigmoid sinus, posterior cranial fossa dura, and endolymphatic sac (sac-vein decompression). Thirty-five patients underwent 37 primary procedures with 2 years of follow-up. Patients were evaluated according to the 1985 American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery criteria for assessing Meniere's disease. Vestibular symptom severity was resolved or mild in 92% and disability severity was none or mild in 95% of patients at 2 years after surgery. Vertigo control was complete or substantial in 85% and 100% of patients at 1 and 2 years after surgery. Audiologic data showed stable or improved hearing in 86% and 85% of patients at 1 and 2 years after surgery. In summary, wide decompression of the sigmoid sinus, posterior cranial fossa dura, and endolymphatic sac offers improved control of vertigo and hearing stabilization for intractable Meniere's disease compared with simple endolymphatic sac decompression or shunt surgery.

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Congenital aural atresia is viewed by many physicians as a poorly characterized, arcane, clinical entity associated with a variety of hearing deficits. In fact, congenital aural atresia represents a disease spectrum predicated on the reliable embryological development of the first and second branchial apparatus. All degrees of microtia, canal atresia, and middle ear structure malformation are identified by this disease process. Many classification schemata have been proffered since the turn of the century to assist the otologist with a better means of assessing the patient's suitability as a surgical candidate. Clinical, audiological, and radiographic evaluation of congenital aural atresia is essential in selecting the appropriate candidates for surgery or hearing amplification. The high resolution CT scan has advanced the understanding and preoperative assessment of this condition. Surgical repair of the external ear and middle ear malformations is effective in properly selected patients. Essential background information, relevant embryology, patient evaluation, treatment, and current controversies related to congenital aural atresia are discussed.

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HYPOTHESIS: We have theorized that surgical occlusion of all three semicircular canals (TCO) may be an effective means to treat vestibular pathology limited to semicircular canal dysfunction while preserving hearing and otolithic function. BACKGROUND: A procedure that would eliminate vertigo while preserving hearing and minimizing postoperative dysequilibrium would be desirable. METHODS: Staged bilateral TCO was performed on four cats and compared to staged bilateral labyrinthectomy in four cats. Balance and gait analysis were performed for 3 weeks after each surgical procedure--a total of 6 weeks of testing. RESULTS: Balance testing, gait analysis, and righting reflex were found to be better among the cats undergoing TCO compared to labyrinthectomy. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to labyrinthectomy in the cat, TCO appears to have advantages for vestibular compensation after unilateral and contralateral surgery.

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The eustachian tube has several functions that are important in maintaining the normal state of the middle ear. The ability of the eustachian tube to carry out these functions changes with age. Certain pathophysiologic mechanisms may affect the normal state of the eustachian tube and predispose people, especially children, to otitis media.

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Delayed facial palsy after acoustic neuroma resection may occur in up to 15% of cases. Prognosis is generally good if the palsy does not progress to total paralysis. However, a delayed palsy with subsequent total paralysis has a more variable final outcome, which ranges from normal function to permanent total paralysis. This delayed paralysis has been attributed to edema from surgical manipulation of the facial nerve. Steroids and intraoperative decompression of the meatal foramen have been used with some success, but some cases remain refractory to these measures. Herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus are ubiquitous in the population and remain in a latent state in neural ganglia. These viruses are reactivated during times of stress. Trigeminal nerve surgery (partial sensory rhizotomy and microvascular decompression) stimulates reactivation of herpes simplex with manifestations in the sensory distribution of the trigeminal nerve in 38-94% of procedures. Prevention of this reactivation has been demonstrated in placebo-controlled trials by using prophylactic acyclovir. We present a patient who underwent translabyrinthine resection of an intracanalicular acoustic neuroma and in whom developed otalgia, vesicles on the ear canal and the ipsilateral buccal mucosa, and progressive facial palsy the week after surgery. Serologic evaluation confirmed the diagnosis of herpes zoster oticus. Reactivation of latent virus apparently occurred as a result of surgical manipulation of the facial nerve. This parallels viral reactivation seen in trigeminal nerve surgery. We propose a new theory for an additional cause of delayed facial palsy after acoustic neuroma resection-reactivation of latent herpesvirus resulting from surgical trauma. Acyclovir should be evaluated in clinical trials for a prophylactic role in patients undergoing acoustic neuroma resection or a therapeutic role in patients in whom a delayed postoperative facial palsy develops.

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A chronic dry perforation in a child presents a dilemma with regard to timing of intervention or whether intervention is appropriate at all. Many studies have looked at elements associated with eustachian tube function in hopes of finding prognostic factors. Adenoidectomy has been shown to be very effective in the treatment of chronic and recurrent otitis media. Intuitively, it would seem to play a role in pediatric tympanoplasty; however, no study has thoroughly investigated this issue to date. To evaluate the role of adenoidectomy in pediatric tympanoplasty, we performed a retrospective review of all patients younger than 18 years who had a simple dry perforation and underwent a Wullstein's type I tympanoplasty. Thirty-six patients were identified for review during the 7-year study period. The patients were grouped into those who had previous adenotonsillectomy (n = 12), those who had prior adenoidectomy alone (n = 10), and those who had neither (n = 14). Initial success of tympanoplasty was noted to be high in all three groups. However, at 6-month follow-up, the success for the group who had not had prior adenoidectomy or tonsillectomy dropped dramatically (14.3%), whereas the other two groups maintained success rates in excess of 75% (p = 0.002). This relationship remained fairly constant throughout the 2 years of follow-up. Although our population under study is somewhat small, the results support a potentially advantageous role of adenoidectomy for pediatric tympanoplasty. These results and their implications will be discussed.

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Hearing preservation is a frequently mentioned phrase in the growing field of skull base surgery. Many authors have attempted to identify prognostic factors for successful hearing preservation, and many have suggested alternative procedures for preserving serviceable hearing. Few have mentioned hearing improvement with skull base surgical procedures. In this article we present the hearing results of 25 surgical procedures for primary petrous apex lesions. These include 13 cholesterol granulomas, 5 cholesteatomas, 4 mucoceles, and 3 eosinophilic granulomas. Surgical approaches included 14 transmastoid/infralabyrinthine, 6 transphenoid, 3 suboccipital, and 2 transmastoid/translabyrinthine. Hearing was maintained in 14 patients (56%), improved in 9 patients (36%), and worse in 1 patient with nonserviceable hearing before surgery (4%); 1 patient had profound hearing loss before surgery (4%). Results of this review should have significant implications on the choice of surgical approach for petrous apex lesions. Additionally, the standard method of determining salvageable hearing for most skull base procedures may not apply for this specific group of lesions. Implications for future treatment plans will be discussed in detail.

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While once a significant risk of sinusitis, the incidence of intracranial complications has decreased remarkably since the advent of antibiotics. This article reviews the intracranial complications of chronic sinusitis, their incidence, clinical manifestations, radiographic evidence, and treatment options.

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Extraintestinal involvement of Crohn's disease is becoming more readily identified. Laryngeal involvement by Crohn's disease, however, has been reported in only five cases in the medical literature. We present the sixth case as well as an analysis of the prior reports.

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