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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Data collection, in high intensity environments, poses several challenges including the ability to observe multiple streams of information. These problems are especially evident in critical care, where monitoring of the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) protocol provides an excellent opportunity to study the efficacy of applications that allow for the rapid capture of event information, providing theoretically-driven feedback using the data. Our goal was, (a) to design and implement a way to capture data on deviation from the standard practice based on the theoretical foundation of error classification from our past research, (b) to provide a means to meaningfully visualize the collected data, and (c) to provide a proof-of-concept for this implementation, using some understanding of user experience in clinical practice. METHODS: We present the design and development of a web application designed to be used primarily on mobile devices and a summary data viewer to allow clinicians to, (a) track their activities, (b) provide real-time feedback of deviations from guidelines and protocols, and (c) provide summary feedback highlighting decisions made. We used a framework previously developed to classify activities in trauma as the theoretical foundation of the rules designed to do the same algorithmically, in our application. Attending physicians at a Level 1 trauma center used the application in the clinical setting and provided feedback for iterative development. Informal interviews and surveys were used to gain some deeper understanding of the user experience using this application in-situ. RESULTS: Activity visualizations were created highlighting decisions made during a trauma code as well as classification of tasks per the theoretical framework. The attendings reviewed the efficacy of the data visualizations as part of their interviews. We also conducted a proof-of-concept evaluation by way of usability questionnaire. Two attendings rated 4 out of the usability 6 categories highly (inter-rater reliability: R = 0.87; weighted kappa = 0.59). This could be attributed to the fact that they were able to fit the use of the application into their regular workflow during a trauma code relatively seamlessly. A deeper evaluation is required to answer explain this further. CONCLUSIONS: Our application can be used to capture and present data to provide an accurate reflection of work activities in real-time in complex critical care environments, without any significant interruptions to workflow.

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This study applied a geographic information system (GIS) to identify clusters of injury-related deaths (IRDs) within a large urban county (26 cities; population, 2.4 million). All deaths due to injuries in Dallas County (Texas) in 2005 (N = 670) were studied, including the geographic location of the injury event. Out of 26 cities in Dallas County, IRDs were reported in 19 cities. Geospatial data were obtained from the local governments and entered into the GIS. Standardized mortality ratios (SMR, with 95% CI) were calculated for each city and the county using national age-adjusted rates. Dallas County had significantly more deaths due to homicides (SMR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.54-1.98) and IRDs as a result of gunshots (SMR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.09-1.37) than the US national rate. However, this increase was restricted to a single city (the city of Dallas) within the county, while the rest of the 25 cities in the county experienced IRD rates that were either similar to or better than the national rate, or experienced no IRDs. GIS mapping was able to depict high-risk geographic "hot spots" for IRDs. In conclusion, GIS spatial analysis identified geographic clusters of IRDs, which were restricted to only one of 26 cities in the county.

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Critical care environments are complex and dynamic. To adapt to such environments, clinicians may be required to make alterations to their workflows resulting in deviations from standard procedures. In this work, deviations from standards in trauma critical care are studied. Thirty trauma cases were observed in a Level 1 trauma center. Activities tracked were compared to the Advance Trauma Life Support standard to determine (i) if deviations had occurred, (ii) type of deviations and (iii) whether deviations were initiated by individuals or collaboratively by the team. Results show that expert clinicians deviated to innovate, while deviations of novices result mostly in error. Experts' well developed knowledge allows for flexibility and adaptiveness in dealing with standards, resulting in innovative deviations while minimizing errors made. Providing informatics solution, in such a setting, would mean that standard protocols would have be flexible enough to "learn" from new knowledge, yet provide strong support for the trainees.

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BACKGROUND: The clinical significance of post-extubation swallowing dysfunction (PSD) is profound, resulting in both increased morbidity and mortality. Specific risk factors have not been described in an injured patient cohort. The purpose of this pilot study was to elucidate independent factors that predict PSD in this population. METHODS: A retrospective cohort analysis was performed on 150 consecutive trauma patients intubated for more than 48 hours. Assessment of swallowing function after extubation was performed by a simple bedside speech pathology evaluation. Patients then were divided into 2 groups: those with and those without PSD. Backwards stepwise logistic regression analysis then was used to determine independent predictors of PSD after controlling for important injury characteristics and patient demographics. RESULTS: The incidence of PSD in our study cohort was 41%. Patients with PSD, although older than non-PSD patients (48 vs 37.5 y; P = .001), were similar with respect to admission Glasgow coma score (GCS) and injury severity score. Regression analysis revealed that age older than 55 years (odds ratio, 2.60; P = .037; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-6.4) and ventilator days (odds ratio, 1.14; P = .001; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-1.2) were significant independent risk factors for PSD. Interpretation of these odds ratios revealed that those patients older than age 55 had more than a 2.5-fold greater risk of PSD. The risk increased by 14% for every day a patient required intubation. There was no significant association between PSD and injury severity score, GCS, presence of medical comorbidities, or development of nosocomial pneumonia. CONCLUSIONS: PSD is a common occurrence in trauma patients. Age older than 55 years and ventilator days are independent risk factors for PSD. Injury severity, altered GCS upon arrival, comorbidities, and nosocomial pneumonia were not independent risk factors for PSD in our cohort. These results suggest that older patients with extended intensive care unit stays and ventilator requirements may benefit from early swallowing evaluation.

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We sought to determine which of 3 methods used to evaluate cardiac index (CI) is the most accurate using focused bedside echocardiography (ECHO). We hypothesized that the fractional shortening (FS) method would provide a more accurate estimate of CI than the left ventricular outflow tract/velocity-time integral (LVOT/VTI) or Simpson's methods. This was a prospective observational cohort study conducted in the surgical ICU of an urban level 1 trauma center utilizing all patients with a pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) in place. Three surgical intensive care unit (SICU) faculty and 3 fellows underwent focused cardiac ultrasound training. Focused ECHO exams-bedside echocardiographic assessment in trauma/critical care (BEAT)- were performed using the Sonosite portable ultrasound device (Bothall, Washington). Stroke volume (SV) measurements were prospectively obtained on all trauma/SICU patients, with a PAC in place, using FS, LVOT/VTI, and Simpson's methods. The investigators were blinded to the PAC data. From each measurement, CI was calculated and categorized as low, normal, or high, based on a normal range of 2.4 to 4.0 L/min per m(2). Each CI obtained from the PAC was similarly categorized. The association between the BEAT and PAC estimates of CI was evaluated for each method using chi-square goodness of fit. Eighty five BEAT exams were performed on consecutive SICU patients, 56% were on trauma and 44% on emergency general surgery patients. There was a statistically significant association between the CI estimate using the FS method (P = .012), but not the LVOT/VTI (P = .33) or Simpson's method (P = .74). Our data showed a significant association between the PAC estimate of CI and our estimate using the FS method. The other methods were difficult to obtain, subjective, and inaccurate. Fractional shortening was the method of choice to estimate CI for the BEAT exam performed by intensivists in SICU patients.

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The notion that human error should not be tolerated is prevalent in both the public and personal perception of the performance of clinicians. However, researchers in other safety-critical domains have long since abandoned the quest for zero defects as an impractical goal, choosing to focus instead on the development of strategies to enhance the ability to recover from error. This paper presents a cognitive framework for the study of error recovery, and the results of our empirical research into error detection and recovery in the critical care domain, using both laboratory-based and naturalistic approaches. Both attending physicians and residents were prone to commit, detect and recover from errors, but the nature of these errors was different. Experts corrected the errors as soon as they detected them and were better able to detect errors requiring integration of multiple elements in the case. Residents were more cautious in making decisions showing a slower error recovery pattern, and the detected errors were more procedural in nature with specific patient outcomes. Error detection and correction are shown to be dependent on expertise, and on the nature of the everyday tasks of the clinicians concerned. Understanding the limits and failures of human decision-making is important if we are to build robust decision-support systems to manage the boundaries of risk of error in decision-making. Detection and correction of potential error is an integral part of cognitive work in the complex, critical care workplace.

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Injury mortality was classically described with a trimodal distribution, with immediate deaths at the scene, early deaths due to hemorrhage, and late deaths from organ failure. We hypothesized that the development of trauma systems has improved prehospital care, early resuscitation, and critical care and altered this pattern. This population-based study of all trauma deaths in an urban county with a mature trauma system reviewed data for 678 patients (median age, 33 years; 81% male; 43% gunshot, 20% motor vehicle crashes). Deaths were classified as immediate (scene), early (in hospital, ≤4 hours from injury), or late (>4 hours after injury). Multinomial regression was used to identify independent predictors of immediate and early versus late deaths, adjusted for age, gender, race, intention, mechanism, toxicology, and cause of death. Results showed 416 (61%) immediate, 199 (29%) early, and 63 (10%) late deaths. Compared with the classical description, the percentage of immediate deaths remained unchanged, and early deaths occurred much earlier (median 52 vs 120 minutes). However, unlike the classic trimodal distribution, the late peak was greatly diminished. Intentional injuries, alcohol intoxication, asphyxia, and injuries to the head and chest were independent predictors of immediate death. Alcohol intoxication and injuries to the chest were predictors of early death, while pelvic fractures and blunt assaults were associated with late deaths. In conclusion, trauma deaths now have a predominantly bimodal distribution. Near elimination of the late peak likely represents advancements in resuscitation and critical care that have reduced organ failure. Further reductions in mortality will likely come from prevention of intentional injuries and injuries associated with alcohol intoxication.

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This study aims to examine resource utilization and outcomes of trauma patients with extremely high blood alcohol concentrations. We hypothesized that higher blood alcohol concentration (BAC) predicts greater resource utilization and poorer outcomes. A retrospective analysis was performed on trauma patients admitted to an urban Level I trauma center over a 5-year period. Admission BAC categories were constructed using standard laboratory norms and legal definitions. Demographic data, premorbid conditions, injury severity scores (ISS), resource utilization (intensive care unit (ICU) admission rates/length of stay, total hospital days, use of consultants), and mortality were analyzed. Positive BAC on admission was associated with increased ISS (P < 0.001), length of stay (P < 0.003), and total ICU days (P < 0.001). Increased BAC admission level of patients was associated with a decreased ISS score (P = 0.0073), a higher probability of ICU admission (P = 0.0013), and an increased percentage of ICU days (P = 0.001). A positive BAC at admission was a significant predictor of both ICU admission and mortality (odds ratios 1.72 and 1.27, respectively). This study demonstrates that a positive BAC is associated with increased ISS, increased resource utilization, and worsened outcomes. Extreme levels of BAC are associated with increased resource utilization despite lower injury severity scores.

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BACKGROUND: Surgery training requires residents to focus on tasks while minimizing the effect of distractions. There is a need to develop training methodologies that can enable surgical residents to hone this ability. METHODS: Fourteen surgical residents were divided into 2 groups. They were trained to perform simulated tasks in a noiseless environment and subsequently performed these tasks in a distractive one. In a follow-up experiment, an experimental group was trained in noisy and distractive conditions and was compared with a control group trained in noiseless conditions. RESULTS: Residents who trained in noiseless environments possessed decreased surgical proficiency when performing the identical tasks in realistic environments (P < .05). Pretraining in a noisy environment improves surgical proficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Noise and distractions can significantly impede performance of surgical residents, but this effect can be nullified by introduction of noise and distractions in the training environment.

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BACKGROUND: Patients referred to trauma centers often undergo an extensive diagnostic work-up before transfer. The purpose of our study was to quantify and examine the effects of repeat imaging in this population. METHODS: A prospective cohort study of 410 patient transfers was performed. Repeat imaging was conducted at the discretion of the accepting surgeon for multiple reasons. Two groups were compared, those who did and those who did not require repeat imaging. RESULTS: Overall, 53% of referrals received repeat imaging, at an average cost of $2,985 per patient. This group was older (42 vs 37 y; P < .05), more severely injured (injury severity score, 12 vs 9; P < .05), and experienced longer delays before transfer (244 vs 192 min; P < .05). By using logistic regression analysis, injury severity score was found to be an independent predictor of the need for repeat imaging (P = .003). CONCLUSIONS: Severely injured trauma patients often receive films that ultimately require duplication, resulting in transfer delay, unnecessary morbidity, and increased resource use. Targeted education and development of centralized radiology systems could alleviate some of the burden of unnecessary imaging.

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BACKGROUND: Critically ill patients often require invasive monitoring to evaluate and optimize cardiac function and preload. With questionable outcomes associated with pulmonary artery catheters (PACs), some have evaluated the role of less invasive monitors. We hypothesized that the Bedside Echocardiographic Assessment in Trauma (BEAT) examination would generate cardiac index (CI) and central venous pressure (CVP) estimates that correlate with that of a PAC. METHODS: BEAT was performed on all SICU patients with a PAC in place. Prospective data included stroke volume and the inferior vena cava (IVC) diameter. The CI was calculated and correlated with that from the PAC. Each CI was then categorized as low, normal, or high. The IVC diameter was used to estimate the CVP. The association between the BEAT and PAC estimates of CI and CVP was evaluated using chi. RESULTS: Eighty-five BEAT examinations were performed, 57% on trauma and 37% on general surgery patients. Fifty-nine percent of the CI examinations and 97% of the IVC examinations contained quality images. Of these, the overall correlation coefficient was 0.70 (p < 0.0001). When CI was categorized, there was a significant association between the BEAT and PAC (p = 0.021). There was a significant association between the CVP estimate from the BEAT examination and the PAC (p = 0.031). CONCLUSION: Our data show a significant correlation between the CI and CVP estimates obtained from the BEAT examination and that from a PAC. BEAT provides a noninvasive method of evaluating cardiac function and volume status. Bedside echocardiography is teachable and should become a part of future critical care curricula.

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BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that early use of external mechanical compression (EMC) reduces hemorrhage and mortality associated with pelvic fractures. METHODS: Patients with pelvic fractures and one of the following risk factors for hemorrhage were studied retrospectively: (1) unstable fracture pattern, or (2) any fracture in patients older than 55 years of age, or (3) fracture with systemic hypotension. Starting in November of 2003, EMC was performed using circumferential pelvic binders on patient arrival and continued for 24 to 72 hours. Patients who underwent EMC (n = 118) were compared with historical controls in the preceding year (n = 119). RESULTS: Patients in the EMC and control groups had similar fracture patterns, age, and injury severity. EMC had no effect on mortality (23% vs 23%, P = .92), need for pelvic angioembolization (11% vs 15%, P = .35), or 24-hour transfusions (5.2 +/- 10 vs 4.6 +/- 9 U, P = .64). CONCLUSIONS: Early EMC with pelvic binders does not reduce hemorrhage or mortality associated with pelvic fractures.

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BACKGROUND: Hypotension is a well-known predictor of mortality in pediatric trauma patients. However, it is unknown whether the mortality rate is higher in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) than in those without TBI. We hypothesized that systemic hypotension increases mortality in pediatric patients with TBI more than it does in pediatric patients with extracranial injuries only. METHODS: Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the relationship between hypotension and the risk of death. Patients were then divided into 2 groups: TBI and No-TBI and the model was applied separately to each group. RESULTS: Overall mortality was 2%. After adjusting for confounding variables, hypotension remained a strong independent predictor of mortality. However, the increased risk of death was similar in patients with and without TBI. CONCLUSION: Hypotension is an important predictor of death in pediatric trauma patients. The increased risk of death associated with hypotension is similar with or without traumatic brain injury.

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PURPOSE: Retrorectal tumors are a diverse group of masses derived from a variety of embryologic origins. Because of this, some confusion is associated with their diagnosis and management. Although rare, a basic understanding of the etiology, presentation, work-up, and treatment of retrorectal masses is essential. METHODS: The incidence, classification, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of these masses are presented. A comprehensive review of the literature is included in our analysis. RESULTS: Retrorectal lesions can be classified as congenital, inflammatory, neurogenic, osseous, or miscellaneous. Benign and malignant lesions behave similarly. The most common presentation is an asymptomatic mass discovered on routine rectal examination, but certain nonspecific symptoms can be elicited by careful history. Biopsy of these lesions should be avoided to prevent tumor seeding, fecal fistula, meningitis, and abscess formation. Complete surgical resection, usually after appropriate specialized imaging, remains the cornerstone of their treatment. Three approaches commonly used for resection are abdominal, transsacral, or a combined abdominosacral approach. Prognosis is directly related primarily to local control, which often is difficult to achieve for malignant lesions. CONCLUSIONS: Retrorectal masses present a challenging surgical problem from diagnosis to treatment. A high index of suspicion and resultant early diagnosis, followed by thorough preoperative planning, is required for optimal management and outcome.

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