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Parental socialization strategies are critical in explaining adolescents' online behavior. This study examined the relationships between parental restorative discipline, observed justice sensitivity, and cyber-bystander defender intervention (constructive and aggressive) in cyberbullying. The sample comprised 900 Mexican adolescents (40.2% male and 58.8% female), of which 450 were from secondary school (M age = 13.6, SD = 0.8) and 450 were from high school (M age = 15.4, SD = 1.3). Structural equation modeling with latent variables was performed. Overall, the results indicate that parental restorative discipline positively relates to the observer's justice sensitivity and the adoption of constructive interventions by cyber-bystander defenders. However, restorative discipline had no significant direct relationship with aggressive intervention. Observers' justice sensitivity mediates the association between restorative parenting discipline and aggressive or constructive defender interventions. Gender does not moderate the relationship proposed in the structural model. These findings suggest that parental restorative discipline explains constructive and aggressive cyber-bystander defender interventions in cyberbullying.

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School engagement is considered an effective college dropout antidote; therefore, understanding the construct, its underpinnings, and its effects remains critical for scholars. Although several scholars have offered multiple scales to measure engagement, their use has been hindered by significant limitations. This study sought to develop a scale to measure academic engagement by unifying and improving existing work and theories that resulted in a three-dimensional measurement model (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive). The items included were validated by a group of experts who ensured that the wording of the items captured the uniqueness of the college experience. A sample of 992 Mexican college students was used to test the fit of a second-order three-dimensional factor model of school engagement. The sample was randomly split in two for model cross-validation. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed that student engagement is a three-dimensional construct, with evidence that supports the hypothesized second-order engagement factor structure (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive). The stability of these models was confirmed by using an independent sample. Measurement invariance by gender was found in this model. Then, differences in latent factor means were analyzed. Finally, the scale showed discriminant and concurrent validity. These results indicate that the scale is theoretically and psychometrically grounded for measuring college students' school engagement.

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Community characteristics can explain differences in bullying rates between schools. Underpinned by the social-ecological model, this study examined the relationships among community violence exposure (CVE), moral emotions (guilt and sympathy), and bullying in adolescents. We also explored the moderating role of gender in these relationships. The sample included 915 adolescents (48.6% female and 51.4% male) aged 11-16 (M age = 13.76, SD = 0.82). Students responded to the self-report measures. We used a latent variable structural equation modeling (SEM) approach to examine the relationships between variables. The SEM indicated that CVE was negatively associated with moral emotions (guilt and sympathy) and positively associated with bullying. In addition, CVE had a negative indirect association with bullying through their negative relationship with moral emotions. The structural model is equivalent for both genders, suggesting gender does not moderate these relationships. These findings indicate that CVE are associated with differences in school bullying rates.

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Positive psychology is vital in increasing prosocial behavior and reducing bullying. However, limited studies have analyzed the influence of positive personal characteristics on the prosocial behaviors of bystanders in bullying. The present study examined direct and indirect relationships between spirituality, happiness, altruism, and prosocial bystander behavior in bullying. Participants in this study were 685 students from Northwestern Mexico; 51% were male and 49% female, between 12 and 18 years old (M = 14.3 years, SD = 1.68). A structural equation model (SEM) was calculated. The results indicate that happiness and altruism were related to prosocial bystander behavior. Spirituality and happiness have an indirect relationship by increasing prosocial bystander behavior through the positive effects of altruism. The SEM explained 48% of the variance of the prosocial bystander. The implications for improving defensive behavior in bullying and reducing school violence are discussed.

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Recent research has shown the relevance of measuring the virtue of temperance. The present study tested a multidimensional and second-order structure scale to assess temperance using a sub-scale of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths for Youth (VIA-Youth). Scale properties were tested using data from a sample of 860 adolescents aged from 12 to 18 years old (M = 14.28 years, SD = 1.65). The sample was randomly split into two subsamples for model cross-validation. Using the first sample, we assessed scale dimensionality, measurement invariance, and discriminant and concurrent validity. A second sample was used for model cross-validation. Confirmatory factorial analysis confirmed the fit of one second-order factor temperance virtue model, with the dimensions of forgiveness, modesty, prudence, and self-control. The results indicate scale measurement equivalence across gender and stage of adolescence (early vs. middle). Latent means difference tests showed significant differences in forgiveness, modesty, and self-regulation by gender, and modesty according to adolescence stage. Moreover, the scale showed discriminant and concurrent validity. These findings indicate that this scale is helpful for assessing temperance in adolescents and suggest the value of temperance as a multidimensional and second-order construct.

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Collective efficacy is a promising theoretical construct that has been used to explain bullying rates in school. The development of school collective efficacy scales has increased in bullying research in recent years; however, gaps remain in measuring collective efficacy to handle bullying. This research assessed the psychometric properties of a new scale to evaluate collective efficacy against bullying. This first-order one-dimensional scale is called the teachers' perceptions of collective efficacy to handle bullying (TCEB) scale. A sample of 804 Mexican primary teachers completed questionnaires. The sample was randomly split into two subsamples for calibration (n = 402) and cross-validation analysis (n = 402). The factor structure was supported by confirmatory factorial analysis. Measurement equivalence was confirmed by gender. The latent means differences showed no statistically significant differences by teachers' gender. The TCEB correlation with school environment factors (e.g., principal support, school climate, and bullying) confirms the scale's discriminant and concurrent validity. Our findings suggest that TCEB is a suitable instrument to assess teachers' perceptions of collective efficacy to handle bullying, a construct that has proved to help predict a positive whole-school context and student bullying involvement.

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The social cognitive approach to moral development posits that moral self-schemas encourage character strengths and reduce adolescents' aggression. However, limited research has examined the influence of positive personal characteristics on proactive behaviors and reactive aggression in bullying. This study examined direct and mediational relationships between forgiveness, gratitude, self-control, and both proactive and reactive aggression in bullying. The extent to which the structural relations of this model were invariant by gender and stage of adolescence were also evaluated. Participants in this study were 1000 Mexican students, 500 early adolescents (M age = 12.36, SD = 0.77 years) and 500 middle adolescents (M age = 16.64, SD = 0.89 years), between 12 and 17 years old. Structural equation and multi-group invariance analysis were performed. Results indicate that gratitude and forgiveness are positively related to self-control. Gratitude, forgiveness, and self-control are also negatively related to reactive and proactive aggression. Forgiveness and gratitude had an indirect relationship by decreasing both proactive and reactive aggression through their positive effects on self-control. Additionally, gender moderated the relationships between variables proposed in the model, whereas stage of adolescence did not. Overall findings suggest that moral self-schemas and strengths explained both types of aggression in bullying.

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Living in rural areas has been described a driver for behaving in a pro-environmental way, mainly due to the more frequent contact with nature that people from rural areas have. However, the processes that link living in a rural area and behaving in a more ecological manner have not been systematically studied. Moreover, most studies have focused on adults living in developed countries. Given the importance that the actions conducted by people in developing countries have for the future of the environment, as well as the relevance of children's pro-environmentalism for nature conservation, we present a brief research report examining the relationship between Mexican children's place of residence and self-reported pro-environmental behavior (PEB). Participants were 200 children from Mexican rural areas (<1,000 inhabitants) and 200 from a Mexican urban city (>150,000 inhabitants). Children were between 9 and 12 years old. Children's connection to nature was considered as a mediator in the relationship between children's place of residence and PEB. Our findings revealed that rural children hold a stronger sense of connection to nature and behave in a more pro-environmental way than urban children. In addition, place of residence was directly and positively linked to their PEBs, and this relationship was mediated by children's connection to nature. The relationship between connection to nature and PEB was stronger for girls than for boys. The model explained 45% of the variance of children's self-reported PEBs.

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Resumen La desconexión moral tiene como consecuencia efectos negativos para el desarrollo psicosocial en la niñez, por lo cual se hace necesario contar con escalas para evaluarla. En el presente estudio se analizaron las propiedades psicométricas de la escala Desconexión Moral en Situaciones de Acoso en niños (DMAE). Participaron 661 estudiantes mexicanos de 5.º (51 %) y 6.º grado (49 %), 48 % niñas (M edad = 10.51, DE = .64 años) y 52 % niños (M edad = 10.59, DE = .68 años). Se analizó la validez (estructura interna y concurrente), invarianza de medida para ambos sexos y fiabilidad de la escala. De los resultados del análisis factorial confirmatorio se infirió que el modelo de medición multidimensional que mide la justificación moral, la difusión de la responsabilidad y la atribución de la culpa presenta mejor ajuste a los datos que el unidimensional. Además, se encontró que la DMAE presenta invariancia de medición en ambos sexos y evidencias de validez concurrente. Se concluye que la escala cuenta con propiedades psicométricas adecuadas para la medición de la desconexión moral en niños mexicanos.

Resumo A desconexão moral tem como consequência efeitos negativos para o desenvolvimento psicossocial na infância, o que torna necessário contar com escalas para avaliá-la. Neste estudo, foram analisadas as propriedades psicométricas da escala Desconexão Moral em Situações de Assédio em Crianças. Participaram 661 estudantes mexicanos do 5º (51 %) e 6º anos (49 %), 48 % meninas (M idade = 10.51, DP = .64 anos) e 52 % meninos (M idade = 10.59, DP = .68 anos). Foi analisada a validade (estrutura interna e concorrente), invariância de medida para ambos os sexos e confiabilidade da escala. Dos resultados da análise fatorial confirmatória, foi inferido que o modelo de medição multidimensional que mede a justificativa moral, a difusão da responsabilidade e a atribuição da culpa apresenta melhor ajuste aos dados do que o unidimensional. Além disso, foi constatado que a escala apresenta invariância de medida em ambos os sexos e evidências de validade concorrente. Concluise que a escala possui propriedades psicométricas adequadas para a medição da desconexão moral em crianças mexicanas.

Abstract The moral disengagement has negative effects for psychosocial development in childhood, which makes it necessary to have scales to evaluate it. The present study aimed to analyze the psychometric properties of the Moral Disengagement in Children Situations of Bullying (DMAE, its initials in Spanish) scale. 661 Mexican students participated from 5th grade (51%) and 6th grade (49%), 48% girls (M age = 10.51, SD = .64 years) and 52% boys (M age = 10.59, SD = .68 years). The validity (internal and concurrent), measurement invariance for both sexes and reliability of the scale were analyzed. From the results of the confirmatory factor analysis, it was inferred that the multidimensional measurement model that measures moral justification, diffusion of responsibility and attribution of blame presents a better fit to the data than the one-dimensional one. It was also found that the DMAE presents measurement invariance in both sexes and evidence of concurrent validity. It was concluded that the scale has adequate psychometric properties for the measurement of moral disengagement in Mexican children

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The relationships among character strengths (forgiveness and gratitude), happiness, and prosocial bystander behavior in bullying were analyzed. The sample includes 500 (early adolescents) and 500 (middle adolescents) of both genders, between 12 and 18 years old (M age = 14.70, SD = 1.58). Two structural equation models were calculated. Results of the first model indicated that forgiveness, gratitude, and happiness had a direct positive relation with prosocial bystander behavior. Furthermore, human strengths were indirectly related to prosocial behavior in bullying for this effect in happiness. The second model showed that prosocial bystander behavior had a positive effect on human strengths and happiness. Multigroup analyses indicated that gender and stage of adolescence did not moderate the relations found in the model. Overall findings suggest a reciprocal relationship between character strengths, happiness, and prosocial bystander behavior.

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Resumen El estudio se propuso analizar las propiedades psicométricas del Participant Role Appoach (PRA) para medir roles de espectadores en el acoso escolar en pre-adolescentes. Participaron 787 estudiantes, 415 (52.7%) niños (M edad=10.59, DE=.66 años) y 372 (47.3%) niñas (M edad=10.51, DE=.64 años). Los resultados del análisis factorial confirmatorio sugirieron que el modelo de tres roles (pro-acoso, pro-social y no comprometido) se ajusta mejor a los datos que el de cuatro roles (alentador, asistente, defensor y no comprometido). La PRA mostró invariancia de medición en ambos sexos, y evidencias de validez concurrente. Se concluyó que la escala posee propiedades psicométricas adecuadas para la medición de roles de espectadores en pre-adolescentes.

Abstract The objective of this research was to analyze the psychometric properties of the Positive Adolescent Development Value Scale (EVDPA, according to its acronym in Spanish) in Chilean students. The sample for the study was made up of 2250 adolescent male and female students between the ages of 12 and 21, from 25 secondary schools in Chile. A robust analysis procedure based on the cross-validation method was used. The results of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis made it possible to obtain a reduced factorial structure with three latent factors: social values, personal values, and individualistic values. Evidence of reliability due to internal coherence was favorable. The conclusion is that despite the significant reduction of items and first-order dimensions, the EVDPA delivers sufficient evidence and can be used in the population of Chilean adolescent students.

Resumo O estudo propôs-se a analisar as propriedades psicométricas do Participant Role Approach (PRA) para medir os papéis de observadores no bullying em pré-adolescentes. Participaram 787 estudantes, 415 (52.7%) meninos (M idade=io.59, DP=.66 anos) e 372 (47.3%) meninas (M idade=io.5i, DP=.64 anos). Os resultados da análise fatorial confirmatoria sugeriram que o modelo de três papéis (pró-bullying, pró-social e não comprometido) ajusta-se melhor aos dados do que o modelo de quatro papéis (encorajador, assistente, defensor e não comprometido). A PRA mostrou invariância de medição em ambos os sexos e evidências de validez concorrente. Concluiu-se que a escala tem propriedades psicométricas adequadas para a medição de papéis de observadores em pré-adolescentes.