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Frail older adults commonly experience multiple co-morbid illnesses and other risk factors for potentially inappropriate prescribing. However, determination of frailty varies depending on the frailty instrument used. Older people's degree of frailty often influences their care and treatment priorities. Research investigating the association between frailty and potentially inappropriate prescribing is hindered by a wide variety of frailty definitions and measurement tools. We undertook a narrative review of selected articles of PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Articles were selected on the basis of relevance to the core themes of frailty and potentially inappropriate prescribing. We identified observational studies that clearly link potentially inappropriate prescribing, potential prescribing omissions, and adverse drug reactions with frailty in older adults. Equally, the literature illustrates that measured frailty in older adults predisposes to inappropriate polypharmacy and associated adverse drug reactions and events. In essence, there is a bi-directional relationship between frailty and potentially inappropriate prescribing, the underlying substrates being multimorbidity and inappropriate polypharmacy. We conclude that there is a need for consensus on rapid and accurate identification of frailty in older people using appropriate and user-friendly methods for routine clinical practice as a means of identifying older multimorbid patients at risk of potentially inappropriate prescribing. Detection of frailty should, we contend, lead to structured screening for inappropriate prescribing in this high-risk population. Of equal importance, detection of potentially inappropriate prescribing in older people should trigger screening for frailty. All clinicians undertaking a medication review of multimorbid patients with associated polypharmacy should take account of the important interaction between frailty and potentially inappropriate prescribing in the interest of minimizing patient harm.

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PURPOSE: To assess medication-related quality-of-life (MRQoL) in multi-morbid older adults with polypharmacy and correlations with medications, frailty and health-related QoL. METHODS: With a cross sectional study of multi-morbid geriatric medicine outpatients, we assessed MRQoL (MRQol-LSv1), frailty status, potentially inappropriate medications, Medication Adherence Rating Scale (MARS), health-related-QoL (Short-Form 12, SF12) and medication burden (Living with Medicines Questionnaire, LMQv2). RESULTS: One-in-four (n = 59) of 234 outpatient attendees met inclusion criteria. Almost half (n = 106, 45%) were excluded due to cognition (MMSE < 26). Included participants (n = 27, mean age 80.2 years) experienced a median of 11 (IQR 9-13.5) co-morbidities and were prescribed a median of 10 (IQR 8-12.25) medications. Overall, MRQoL-LS.v.1 scores were low, suggesting good medication-related quality of life (median MRQoL-LS.v.1 score of 14, IQR 14-22). Correlations between MRQoL, number of daily medications, co-morbidity burden, LMQv2 score, SF12 scores and number of PIMs were non-significant. CONCLUSION: MRQoL-LSv.1 is unsuitable for most patients attending geriatric ambulatory services.

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Polypharmacy and prescribing of potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) are the key elements of inappropriate medication use (IMU) in older multimorbid people. IMU is associated with a range of negative healthcare consequences including adverse drug events and unplanned hospitalizations. Furthermore, prescribing guidelines are commonly derived from randomized controlled clinical trials which have specifically excluded older adults with multimorbidity. Consequently, indiscriminate application of single disease pharmacotherapy guidelines to older multimorbid patients can lead to increased risk of drug-drug interactions, drug-disease interactions and poor drug adherence. Both polypharmacy and PIMs are highly prevalent in older people and strategies to improve the quality and safety of prescribing, largely through avoidance of IMU, are needed. In the last 30 years, numerous explicit PIM criteria-based tools have been developed to assist physicians with medication management in clinically complex multimorbid older people. Very few of these PIM criteria sets have been tested as an intervention compared with standard pharmaceutical care in well-designed clinical trials. In this review, we describe the most widely used sets of explicit PIM criteria to address inappropriate polypharmacy with particular focus on STOPP/START criteria and FORTA criteria which have been associated with positive patient-related outcomes when used as interventions in recent randomized controlled trials.

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The global population of multimorbid older people is growing steadily. Multimorbidity is the principal cause of complex polypharmacy, which in turn is the prime risk factor for inappropriate prescribing and adverse drug reactions and events. Those who prescribe for older frailer multimorbid people are particularly prone to committing prescribing errors of various kinds. The causes of prescribing errors in this patient population are multifaceted and complex, including prescribers' lack of knowledge of aging physiology, geriatric medicine, and geriatric pharmacotherapy, overprescribing that frequently leads to major polypharmacy, inappropriate prescribing, and inappropriate drug omission. This review examines the various ways of minimizing prescribing errors in multimorbid older people. The role of education in physician prescribers and clinical pharmacists, the use of implicit and explicit prescribing criteria designed to improve medication appropriateness in older people, and the application of information and communication-technology systems to minimize errors are discussed in detail. Although evidence to support any single intervention to prevent prescribing errors in multimorbid elderly people is inconclusive or lacking, published data support focused prescriber education in geriatric pharmacotherapy, routine application of STOPP/START (screening tool of older people's prescriptions/screening tool to alert to right treatment) criteria for potentially inappropriate prescribing, electronic prescribing, and close liaison between clinical pharmacists and physicians in relation to structured medication review and reconciliation. Carrying out a structured medication review aimed at optimizing pharmacotherapy in this vulnerable patient population presents a major challenge. Another challenge is to design, build, validate, and test by clinical trials suitably versatile and efficient software engines that can reliably and swiftly perform complex medication reviews in older multimorbid people. The European Union-funded SENATOR and OPERAM clinical trials commencing in 2016 will examine the impact of customized software engines in reducing medication-related morbidity, avoidable excess cost, and rehospitalization in older multimorbid people.

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OBJECTIVES: To determine whether use of the Screening Tool of Older Persons' Prescriptions (STOPP) and Screening Tool to Alert to Right Treatment (START) criteria reduces incident hospital-acquired adverse drug reactions (ADRs), 28-day medication costs, and median length of hospital stay in older adults admitted with acute illness. DESIGN: Single-blind cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) of unselected older adults hospitalized over a 13-month period. SETTING: Tertiary referral hospital in southern Ireland. PARTICIPANTS: Consecutively admitted individuals aged 65 and older (N = 732). INTERVENTION: Single time point presentation to attending physicians of potentially inappropriate medications according to the STOPP/START criteria. MEASUREMENTS: The primary outcome was the proportion of participants experiencing one or more ADRs during the index hospitalization. Secondary outcomes were median length of stay (LOS) and 28-day total medication cost. RESULTS: One or more ADRs occurred in 78 of the 372 control participants (21.0%; median age 78, interquartile range (IQR) 72-84) and in 42 of the 360 intervention participants (11.7%; median age 80, IQR 73-85) (absolute risk reduction = 9.3%, number needed to treat = 11). The median LOS in the hospital was 8 days (IQR 4-14 days) in both groups. At discharge, median medication cost was significantly lower in the intervention group (€73.16, IQR €38.68-121.72) than in the control group (€90.62, IQR €49.38-162.53) (Wilcoxon rank test Z statistic = -3.274, P < .001). CONCLUSION: Application of STOPP/START criteria resulted in significant reductions in ADR incidence and medication costs in acutely ill older adults but did not affect median LOS.

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ResumenLas personas mayores son un grupo heterogéneo de pacientes, en el que a menudo coexisten múltiples enfermedades para las que se prescribe un elevado número de medicamentos, con el riesgo consiguiente de reacciones adversas a medicamentos (RAM) e interacciones farmacológicas. Este riesgo aumenta con la edad, como consecuencia de los cambios fisiológicos del envejecimiento, los cambios en el comportamiento farmacocinético y farmacodinámico de los medicamentos, y la influencia de las enfermedades, los problemas funcionales y los aspectos sociales.ResumenLa prescripción inapropiada de fármacos es un problema frecuente en los mayores, que contribuye al aumento del riesgo de RAM. Se han desarrollado varias herramientas para detectar la prescripción potencialmente inadecuada, siendo los criterios de Beers la más utilizada en nuestro entorno. No obstante, el valor de estos criterios es limitado, especialmente por haberse desarrollado en un sistema sanitario diferente(AU)

AbstractOlder people are a heterogeneous group of patients, often with multiple comorbidities for which they are prescribed a large number of drugs, leading to an increased risk of adverse drug reactions (ADR) and drug interactions. This risk is compounded by physiological age-related changes in physiology, changes in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, as well as by disease-related, functional and social issues.AbstractInappropriate prescription of drugs is common in the older individuals and contributes to the increased risk of ADR. Several tools have been developed to detect potentially inappropriate prescription, the most frequently used in Spain being Beers’ criteria. However, the value of these criteria is limited, especially as they were developed in a different healthcare system(AU)

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Las personas mayores son un grupo heterogéneo de pacientes, en el que a menudo coexisten múltiples enfermedades para las que se prescribe un elevado número de medicamentos, con el riesgo consiguiente de reacciones adversas a medicamentos (RAM) e interacciones farmacológicas. Este riesgo aumenta con la edad, como consecuencia de los cambios fisiológicos del envejecimiento, los cambios en el comportamiento farmacocinético y farmacodinámico de los medicamentos, y la influencia de las enfermedades, los problemas funcionales y los aspectos sociales La prescripción inapropiada de fármacos es un problema frecuente en los mayores, que contribuye al aumento del riesgo de RAM. Se han desarrollado varias herramientas para detectar la prescripción potencialmente inadecuada, siendo los criterios de Beers la más utilizada en nuestro entorno. No obstante, el valor de estos criterios es limitado, especialmente por haberse desarrollado en un sistema sanitario diferente (AU)

Older people are a heterogeneous group of patients, often with multiple comorbidities for which they are prescribed a large number of drugs, leading to an increased risk of adverse drug reactions (ADR) and drug interactions. This risk is compounded by physiological age-related changes in physiology, changes in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, as well as by disease-related, functional and social issues Inappropriate prescription of drugs is common in the older individuals and contributes to the increased risk of ADR. Several tools have been developed to detect potentially inappropriate prescription, the most frequently used in Spain being Beers’ criteria. However, the value of these criteria is limited, especially as they were developed in a different healthcare system(AU)

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Older people are a heterogeneous group of patients, often with multiple comorbidities for which they are prescribed a large number of drugs, leading to an increased risk of adverse drug reactions (ADR) and drug interactions. This risk is compounded by physiological age-related changes in physiology, changes in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, as well as by disease-related, functional and social issues. Inappropriate prescription of drugs is common in the older individuals and contributes to the increased risk of ADR. Several tools have been developed to detect potentially inappropriate prescription, the most frequently used in Spain being Beers' criteria. However, the value of these criteria is limited, especially as they were developed in a different healthcare system. In this article, the Spanish version of a new tool to detect potentially inappropriate prescriptions-STOPP (Screening Tool of Older Person's Prescriptions) and START (Screening Tool to Alert doctors to Right i.e. appropriate, indicated Treatment) criteria-is presented. The creation, development, reliability, and use of these criteria in routine practice is described and discussed. These criteria have shown better sensitivity than Beers' criteria in detecting prescription problems and have the added value of being able to detect not only inappropriate prescription of some drugs, but also the omission of well indicated drugs. The STOPP/START criteria could become a useful screening tool to improve prescription in older people.

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Inappropriate prescribing (IP) in older patients is highly prevalent and is associated with an increased risk of adverse drug events (ADEs), morbidity, mortality and healthcare utilisation. Consequently, IP is a major safety concern and with changing population demographics, it is likely to become even more prevalent in the future. IP can be detected using explicit or implicit prescribing indicators. Theoretically, the routine clinical application of these IP criteria could represent an inexpensive and time efficient method to optimise prescribing practice. However, IP criteria must be sensitive, specific, have good inter-rater reliability and incorporate those medications most commonly associated with ADEs in older people. To be clinically relevant, use of prescribing appropriateness tools must translate into positive patient outcomes, such as reduced rates of ADEs. To accurately measure these outcomes, a reliable method of assessing the relationship between the administration of a drug and an adverse clinical event is required. The Naranjo criteria are the most widely used tool for assessing ADE causality, however, they are often difficult to interpret in the context of older patients. ADE causality criteria that allow for the multiple co-morbidities and prescribed medications in older people are required. Ultimately, the current high prevalence of IP and ADEs is unacceptable. IP screening criteria need to be tested as an intervention to assess their impact on the incidence of ADEs in vulnerable older patients. There is a role for IP screening tools in everyday clinical practice. These should enhance, not replace good clinical judgement, which in turn should be based on sound pharmacogeriatric training.

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Constipation is a significant healthcare problem in the elderly. However, while undoubtedly common in the elderly, data on the prevalence of constipation in general and of its subtypes vary considerably, depending on the nature of the study population and their location. Furthermore, the complexity of the pathophysiology of constipation in this age group is little appreciated. Assumptions regarding 'age-related changes in colorectal physiology' are, for the most part, not supported by scientific evidence and may serve to distract the clinician from uncovering the contributions of co-morbid diseases and the impact of iatrogenic factors. The evidence base from which one can develop recommendations on the management of constipation in the elderly is, for the most part, slim. This becomes most starkly apparent when one attempts to critically assess specific approaches to management. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of many commonly used laxatives both in the general population and in the elderly. Lifestyle interventions have value for some patients but data are lacking on the benefits of these interventions for patients with chronic constipation. Data in the elderly do not exist for most new pharmacological approaches to constipation. Pending the availability of good data, management of constipation in the elderly should be tailored to each individual's needs and expectations, regardless of age or place of residence. In certain situations, constipation may be complicated by the development of impaction; preventive strategies are important in this context. We urge enrolment of many more elderly individuals with chronic constipation in clinical trials designed to address their particular needs.

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INTRODUCTION: Adverse drug events (ADEs) are associated with inappropriate prescribing (IP) and result in increased morbidity, mortality and resource utilisation. We used Beers' Criteria to determine the three-month prevalence of IP in a non-selected community-dwelling population of acutely ill older people requiring hospitalisation. METHODS: A prospective, observational study of 597 consecutive acute admissions was performed. Diagnoses and concurrent medications were recorded before hospital physician intervention, and Beers' Criteria applied. RESULTS: Mean patient age (SD) was 77 (7) years. Median number of medications was 5, range 0-13. IP occurred in 32% of patients (n = 191), with 24%, 6% and 2% taking 1, 2 and 3 inappropriate medications respectively. Patients taking >5 medications were 3.3 times more likely to receive an inappropriate medication than those taking < or =5 medications (OR 3.34: 95%, CI 2.37-4.79; P<0.001). Forty-nine per cent of patients with inappropriate prescriptions were admitted with adverse effects of the inappropriate medications. Sixteen per cent of all admissions were associated with such adverse effects. CONCLUSION: IP is highly prevalent in acutely ill older patients and is associated with polypharmacy and hospitalisation. However, Beers' Criteria cannot be used as a gold standard as they do not comprehensively address all aspects of IP in older people.

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