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The Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) includes two main species of non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), M. avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. These can cause serious disease, especially in immunocompromised patients. Little information is available concerning genetic diversity of NTM. We used multilocus sequence typing (MLST) based on a highly discriminative gene set to analyze MAC serially isolated from patients to determine the rate of MAC reinfection. Genomic DNA was sequenced from 49 MAC isolates (15 cases comprised of 11 true infections and 4 instances of colonization). More than half of the MAC isolates tested were found to be multidrug resistant. The discriminatory power was assessed of 24 house-keeping genes (fusA, atpD, pheT, glnA, topA, secA, argH, glpK, murC, cya, pta, rrl, rrs, hsp65, rpoB, 16S-23S rRNA ITS, recF, lipT, pepB, gnd, aspB, groEL, sodA and est) previously used for genotyping of MAC and other NTM. Seven genes (fusA, secA, rpoB, hsp65, 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, 16S-23S rRNA ITS) had a discriminatory power index higher than 0.9 and were included in the optimized set that we used. This set was significantly better for genotyping and diagnosis of MAC than previously used 4-gene, 5-gene and 9-gene sets. MLST using our 7-gene set indicated that the rate of reinfection was 54.55% (6/11 cases). Persistent infections (n = 5 cases, 45.45%) were found. A changing of clone in the same patient was found in 1/4 (25%) of the colonization cases. Two small clusters of possible MAC transmission between humans were found. Our study demonstrated that the high frequency of apparent treatment failure of MAC might be artefactual, as a consequence of a high rate of MAC reinfection in Thai population. Our useful highly discriminative gene set for MAC species and clonal strain analysis could be further applied for the diagnosis and patient management.

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Multidrug resistance is a major threat to global elimination of tuberculosis (TB). We performed phenotypic drug-susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing for 309 isolates from 342 consecutive patients who were given a diagnosis of TB in Yangon, Myanmar, during July 2016‒June 2018. We identified isolates by using the GeneXpert platform to evaluate drug-resistance profiles. A total of 191 (62%) of 309 isolates had rifampin resistance; 168 (88%) of these rifampin-resistant isolates were not genomically related, indicating the repeated emergence of resistance in the population, rather than extensive local transmission. We did not detect resistance mutations to new oral drugs, including bedaquiline and pretomanid. The current GeneXpert MTB/RIF system needs to be modified by using the newly launched Xpert MTB/XDR cartridge or line-probe assay. Introducing new oral drugs to replace those currently used in treatment regimens for multidrug-resistant TB will also be useful for treating TB in Myanmar.

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Tetraena mongolica is a xerophytic shrub endemic to desert regions in Inner Mongolia. This species has evolved distinct survival strategies that allow it to adapt to hyper-drought and heterogeneous habitats. Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) may provide a molecular basis in plants for fast adaptation to environmental change. Thus, identifying SSRs and their possible effects on gene behavior has the potential to provide valuable information for studies of adaptation. In this study, we sequenced six individual transcriptomes of T. mongolica from heterogeneous habitats, focused on SSRs located in genes, and identified 811 polymorphic SSRs. Of the identified SSRs, 172, 470, and 76 were located in 5' UTRs, CDSs, and 3' UTRs in 591 transcripts; and AG/CT, AAC/GTT, and AT/AT were the most abundant repeats in each gene region. Functional annotation showed that many of the identified polymorphic SSRs were in genes that were enriched in several GO terms and KEGG pathways, suggesting the functional significance of these genes in the environmental adaptation process. The identification of polymorphic genic SSRs in our study lays a foundation for future studies investigating the contribution of SSRs to regulation of genes in natural populations of T. mongolica and their importance for adaptive evolution of this species.

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Asparaginyl endopeptidases (AEPs) catalyze the key backbone cyclization step during the biosynthesis of plant-derived cyclic peptides. Here, we report the identification of two AEPs from Momordica cochinchinensis and biochemically characterize MCoAEP2 that catalyzes the maturation of trypsin inhibitor cyclotides. Recombinantly produced MCoAEP2 catalyzes the backbone cyclization of a linear cyclotide precursor (MCoTI-II-NAL) with a kcat/Km of 620 mM-1 s-1, making it one of the fastest cyclases reported to date. We show that MCoAEP2 can mediate both the N-terminal excision and C-terminal cyclization of cyclotide precursors in vitro. The rate of cyclization/hydrolysis is primarily influenced by varying pH, which could potentially control the succession of AEP-mediated processing events in vivo. Furthermore, MCoAEP2 efficiently catalyzes the backbone cyclization of an engineered MCoTI-II analog with anti-angiogenic activity. MCoAEP2 provides enhanced synthetic access to structures previously inaccessible by direct chemistry approaches and enables the wider application of trypsin inhibitor cyclotides in biotechnology applications.

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Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli serogroup O26 is an important public health pathogen. Phylogenetic bacterial lineages in a country can be associated with the level and timing of international imports of live cattle, the main reservoir. We sequenced the genomes of 152 E. coli O26 isolates from New Zealand and compared them with 252 E. coli O26 genomes from 14 other countries. Gene variation among isolates from humans, animals, and food was strongly associated with country of origin and stx toxin profile but not isolation source. Time of origin estimates indicate serogroup O26 sequence type 21 was introduced at least 3 times into New Zealand from the 1920s to the 1980s, whereas nonvirulent O26 sequence type 29 strains were introduced during the early 2000s. New Zealand's remarkably fewer introductions of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O26 compared with other countries (such as Japan) might be related to patterns of trade in live cattle.

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Influenza A virus (IAV) represents an ongoing threat to human and animal health worldwide. The generation of IAV-resistant chickens through genetic modification and/or selective breeding may help prevent viral spread. The feasibility of creating genetically modified birds has already been demonstrated with the insertion of transgenes that target IAV into the genomes of chickens. This approach has been met with some success in minimising the spread of IAV but has limitations in terms of its ability to prevent the emergence of disease. An alternate approach is the use of genetic engineering to improve host resistance by targeting the antiviral immune responses of poultry to IAV. Harnessing such resistance mechanisms in a "genetic restoration" approach may hold the greatest promise yet for generating disease resistant chickens. Continuing to identify genes associated with natural resistance in poultry provides the opportunity to identify new targets for genetic modification and/or selective breeding. However, as with any new technology, economic, societal, and legislative barriers will need to be overcome before we are likely to see commercialisation of genetically modified birds.

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This article contains microbiome data from the upper respiratory tract of patients living with HIV/TB, HIV and TB from Meiktila, a town in Myanmar where there is a high incidence of HIV and TB. Microbiomes were compared for HIV/TB infected and healthy adults from the same population. We collected nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs from a total of 33 participants (Healthy {5}, HIV/TB {8}, HIV {14}, and TB {6}). DNA was extracted from the swabs and subjected to custom single step 16s rRNA sequencing on an Illumina MiSeq platform. The sequencing data is available via http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/ PRJNA432583.

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