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The apicomplexan protozoan Cryptosporidium parvum is an important causative agent of diarrhea of neonatal bovines. Vaccination has been proposed as an advantageous strategy against cryptosporidiosis of calves since besides protection against disease it has also the potential to prevent dissemination of infective oocysts into the environment. Antigens anchored to the parasite surface via glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) are implicated in host cell attachment and invasion and represent promising vaccine candidates. A reverse vaccinology approach was employed to (i) identify the GPI-anchored proteome of C. parvum using available web-based bioinformatic tools and (ii) characterize previously unrecognized novel vaccine antigens. Altogether, 14 putative GPI-anchored proteins could be determined of which CpH1 and CpSUB2 as well as GP60 were further characterized. Sequencing and comparison of GP60, CpH1, and CpSUB1 alleles amplified from different geographic isolates showed a high degree of conservation. All three antigens were recombinant expressed and immunoblotted using sera of 12 Cryptosporidium-infected calves sampled at age periods 1-11 and 12-28 days after birth. Specific antibody reactions against the studied antigens were detected in all analyzed calves, demonstrating their immunreactivity and expression, and recognition in vivo at an early stage of host infection. Besides the acknowledged GP60 vaccinogen, the presented reverse vaccinology approach reveals the additional vaccine candidates CpH1 and CpSUB1 for inclusion into a subunit vaccine formulation.

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Babesia bovis is a tick-transmitted haemoprotozoan and a causative agent of bovine babesiosis, a cattle disease that causes significant economic loss in tropical and subtropical regions. A panel of nineteen micro- and minisatellite markers was used to estimate population genetic parameters of eighteen parasite isolates originating from different continents, countries and geographic regions including North America (Mexico, USA), South America (Argentina, Brazil), the Middle East (Israel) and Australia. For eleven of the eighteen isolates, a unique haplotype was inferred suggesting selection of a single genotype by either in vitro cultivation or amplification in splenectomized calves. Furthermore, a high genetic diversity (H = 0.780) over all marker loci was estimated. Linkage disequilibrium was observed in the total study group but also in sample subgroups from the Americas, Brazil, and Israel and Australia. In contrast, corresponding to their more confined geographic origin, samples from Israel and Argentina were each found to be in equilibrium suggestive of random mating and frequent genetic exchange. The genetic differentiation (F(ST)) of the total study group over all nineteen loci was estimated by analysis of variance (Θ) and Nei's estimation of heterozygosity (G(ST')) as 0.296 and 0.312, respectively. Thus, about 30% of the genetic diversity of the parasite population is associated with genetic differences between parasite isolates sampled from the different geographic regions. The pairwise similarity of multilocus genotypes (MLGs) was assessed and a neighbour-joining dendrogram generated. MLGs were found to cluster according to the country/continent of origin of isolates, but did not distinguish the attenuated from the pathogenic parasite state. The distant geographic origin of the isolates studied allows an initial glimpse into the large extent of genetic diversity and differentiation of the B. bovis population on a global scale.

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The merozoite surface antigens MSA-2 of Babesia bovis constitute a family of polymorphic GPI-anchored glycoproteins located at the parasite cell surface, that contain neutralization-sensitive B-cell epitopes. These are therefore putative vaccine candidates for bovine babesiosis. It was previously shown that (i) the MSA-2 antigens of the biologically cloned Mo7 strain are encoded by four tandemly organized genes: msa-2a(1), a(2), b and c, and (ii) at least one allele of each of these genes is present in the Argentine R1A strain with a moderate degree of polymorphism. The present work was aimed at defining neutralization-sensitive B-cell epitopes in the MSA-2 family, that are conserved among different B. bovis geographical isolates. To this end, msa-2a, b and c alleles from different isolates from Argentina, USA and Mexico were amplified by PCR, cloned and sequenced. Bioinformatic analysis by ClustalW alignments and B-cell epitope prediction algorithms performed on these sequences allowed the identification of several regions containing putative conserved B-cell epitopes. Four peptides representing these regions: (KDYKTMVKFCN from msa-2a(1); YYKKHIS, from msa-2b; and THDALKAVKQLIKT and ELLKLLIEA from msa-2c) were chemically synthesized, conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin and used to inoculate mice to obtain immune sera. Anti-peptide antibodies recognized B. bovis merozoite extracts in all cases in ELISA tests. In addition, these sera reacted with the surface of merozoites of an Argentine and a Mexican B. bovis strains in immunofluorescence assays, and sera against two of the selected peptides inhibited invasion of erythrocytes by in vitro cultured merozoites. Taken together, the results show that the peptide sequences selected by bioinformatic analysis represent expressed and geographically conserved B. bovis B-cell epitopes that might be strong candidates for development of subunit vaccines.

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Babesia bovis is a tick-borne apicomplexan pathogen that remains an important constraint for the development of cattle industries worldwide. The existence of different strains and subpopulations has long been described in this hemoparasite. However, few molecular markers have been reported for strain genotyping and characterization. Minisatellite sequences show high levels of variation and therefore provide excellent tools for both the genotyping and population genetic analysis. In this work we report a set of five molecular markers containing minisatellites that showed a variable degree of polymorphism in several American strains. We have used a bioinformatics approach to search for marker sequences contained in open reading frames. Five genes were chosen and primers were designed in conserved regions flanking the repeat region. Two of the genes were the previously described Bv80/Bb-1 and TRAP. The other three genes were named p200, Antigen 3 and Desmoyokin. Amplification by PCR, sequencing and comparative analysis of 11 strains from Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Mexico and USA determined that the tandem repeats varied in number and sequence among the isolates. Genome analysis of the five markers revealed that they were single copy and distributed across the four B. bovis chromosomes. When the new markers were analyzed in an experimental infection, absolute sequence conservation was found, indicating the stability of these markers during the course of infection. These markers were also stable during three syringe passages through calves. The application of this panel of molecular markers could provide new molecular tools for the genotyping of B. bovis isolates and analysis of changes in parasite populations following vaccination.

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The merozoite surface antigen-2 (msa-2) family of Babesia bovis is a group of variable genes that share conserved 5' and 3' ends and encode for membrane-anchored glycoproteins that have been postulated as vaccine candidates. In this work, we analyzed the sequences of three of these genes (msa-2a1, a2, and 2b) from two geographically distant strains and detected a certain degree of genotypic diversity that could be exploited to work out new molecular tools for the discrimination of B. bovis field samples. Here we describe a PCR restriction assay that was developed based on this observation and tested on several B. bovis strains and isolates. The results show a strain-specific band pattern in geographically distant isolates, indicating the presence of differentially located BspMI restriction sites. This approach provides a simple method for the differentiation of American B. bovis strains.

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An indirect ELISA (iELISA) for the detection of specific anti-Theileria equi antibodies in horse serum was developed. Its performance showed good concordance (K= 0.79) when compared with a competitive ELISA recommended by the World Organisation for Animal Health. Horse serum samples from two provinces located in the north and east of Argentina (Formosa and Entre Rios, respectively) were analyzed by this iELISA. A high percentage of positive horses were found in Formosa, consistent with the climatic conditions of the region that are apt for the development of tick vectors. Surprisingly, seropositive animals were also detected, although in a lower proportion, in Entre Rios, which has a temperate weather and is presumably tick free. Breeding of thoroughbred racing horses is an important economic asset of Argentina. Since equine piroplasmosis is a constraint for horse export, the epidemiological situation in different regions of the country needs to be assessed for the implementation of control measures. The iELISA developed in this work provides a convenient tool for this type of study.

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Babesia bovis is a tick-borne apicomplexan pathogen that remains an important constrain for the development of cattle industries worldwide. Effective control can be achieved by vaccination with live attenuated forms of the parasite, but they have several drawbacks and thus the development of alternative subunit vaccines, either based in recombinant versions of full size proteins or in recombinant or synthetic peptides containing combinations of protective B-cell and T-cell epitopes is needed. Our current strategies for the identification of vaccine candidate antigens include the identification of functionally relevant antigens, bioinformatics, and comparative genomics using the recently sequenced B. bovis genome. These led us to the functional and immunological characterization of members of the VMSA gene family, a group of well conserved putative cysteine and serine proteases, and to the definition of a surface exposed B-cell epitope present in the Merozoite Surface Antigen-2c. Work in progress is focused in defining additional epitopes, and to determine whether they are neutralization-sensitive. These approaches might unravel useful vaccine candidates for B. bovis, and will increase our understanding of the pathogenicity mechanisms of these and related hemoparasites.

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The Merozoite Surface Antigen-2 (MSA-2) family of Babesia bovis is a group of variable genes which share conserved 5' and 3' conserved ends. These genes encode membrane anchored glycoproteins, named MSA-2a1, a2, b and c, which are immunodominant antigens located on the surface of sporozoites and merozoites. In this work, we have analyzed the sequences of the msa-2a1, a2 and 2b genes in two geographically distant strains from Mexico and Argentina and detected a certain degree of genotypic diversity that can be exploited for the development of a new molecular tool for the discrimination of B. bovis field samples. Here, we describe a PCR restriction assay based on the msa2-a1, -a2 and -2b genes of B. bovis. When field strains from Argentina, Mexico and USA were analyzed, the results showed a strain-specific band pattern indicating the presence of differentially located BspMI restriction sites. This approach provides a simple method for the genotyping/strain differentiation of B. bovis field samples.

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The search for vaccine candidates against bovine babesiosis caused by Babesia bovis is greatly focused on the identification of merozoite surface-exposed antigens that are widely conserved, functionally relevant and immunodominant in cattle protected against B. bovis infections. We have recently identified msa-2c, a member of the B. bovis variable merozoite surface antigen (VMSA) gene family, which in contrast to other members, appears to be highly conserved among geographically distant B. bovis strains. In this study, we further investigated the potential of the msa-2c gene product as diagnostic and vaccine candidate for bovine babesiosis. RT-PCR studies demonstrated that MSA-2c is transcribed in merozoites of the Argentine R1A strain. In addition, antibodies against R1A recombinant MSA-2c reacted in immunoblots with a single protein of approximately 30kDa in B. bovis merozoite extracts from both R1A and Australian "S" strains, demonstrating translation of this protein in these two strains and conservation of B-cell epitopes between them. These antibodies reacted with the cell surface of R1A merozoites in fixed immunofluorescence assays, indicating the surface localization of MSA-2c. This localization was confirmed by live immunofluorescence studies in two different strains, R1A and S2P. These results also demonstrate the conservation of MSA-2c surface-exposed B-cell epitopes between these two strains. Sera from cattle either naturally or experimentally infected with Argentine strains of B. bovis specifically recognized rMSA-2c in immunoblots, reinforcing the idea that B-cell epitopes in rMSA-2c are widely conserved among field strains of B. bovis. Furthermore, our results show that these B-cell epitopes are highly immunogenic, suggesting that MSA-2c may be a useful diagnostic tool for the detection of bovine babesiosis by B. bovis. Experimental vaccination of five bovines with rMSA-2c resulted in elicitation of high specific anti-rMSA-2c IgG titers, with similar amounts of IgG(1) and IgG(2) produced. Importantly, bovine anti-rMSA-2c antibodies were able to neutralize in vitro bovine erythrocyte invasion by R1A merozoites suggesting a significant functional role for MSA-2c. Taken together these results postulate MSA-2c as a candidate for the development of novel tools for improved control of bovine babesiosis.

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We found that, as in African trypanosomes, endogenous phospholipase A(1) (Plase A(1)) activity can catalyse extensive deacylation of phospholipids upon cell death in all life stages of Trypanosoma cruzi. A major lysosomal Plase A(1) was purified and characterized. The enzyme products can explain the lesions surrounding degenerating T. cruzi cells in host tissues. Thus Plase A(1) emerges as a target to block pathogenesis in trypanosomal infections.

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A set of radioiodinatable phosphatidylcholines (PCs) derivatized with the Bolton-Hunter reagent (BHPCs) was synthesized to probe the substrate recognition and activity of phospholipases. A common feature of this series is the presence of a bulky 4-hydroxyphenyl group at the end of the fatty acyl chain attached to position sn-2. The distance between the end group and the glycerol backbone was varied by changing the length of the intervening fatty acyl chain (3-25 atoms). Except for the shortest, this chain includes at least one amide linkage. The usefulness of this series of substrates as a molecular ruler was tested by measuring the hydrolytic activities of Naja naja naja phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) and Bacillus cereus phospholipase C (PLC) in Triton X-100 micelles. The activity of PLA(2) proved to be highly dependent on the length of the fatty acyl chain linker, the shorter compounds (3-10 atoms) being very poor substrates. In contrast, the PLC activity profile exhibited much less discrimination. In both cases, PCs with 16-21 atom chains at position sn-2 yielded optimal activity. We interpret these findings in terms of fatty acyl chain length-related steric hindrance caused by the terminal aromatic group, affecting the activity of PLA(2) and, to a smaller extent, that of PLC. This notion agrees with the more extended recognition of aliphatic chains inside the narrow channel leading to the catalytic site in the former case. Molecular models of these substrates bound to PLA(2) were built on the basis of the crystallographic structure of Naja naja atra PLA(2) complexed with a phospholipid analogue. Docking of these substrates necessarily requires the intrusion of the bulky 4-hydroxyphenyl group inside the binding pocket and also the failure of the amide group to form hydrogen bonds inside the hydrophobic substrate channel.

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The purification and characterization of a novel phosphodiesterase (PDE) is presented. The activity was detected in the extracellular medium of Tetrahymena thermophila cultures, by the release of p-nitrophenol from p-nitrophenylphosphocholine (PNPPC) with an acidic pH optimum. In cell homogenates, it is sedimentable, shows a latency similar to that of acid phosphatase and is co-secreted with this enzyme, indicating that it is a lysosomal hydrolase. PNPPC-PDE was purified to homogeneity from the extracellular medium, yielding a single band of 58 kD on SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. It catalyzed the release of glycerol from glycerophosphocholine (GPC) and GPC competitively inhibits degradation of PNPPC. We present further evidence indicating that the natural substrate for PNPPC-PDE is GPC. Thus, Tetrahymena becomes the first eukaryote in which a lysosomal GPC-PDE is observed. This finding provides a new pathway for the complete breakdown of phosphatidylcholine in a lysosomal medium.

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A rapid and economical method for the purification of phospholipase A1 (PLA1) from the extracellular medium of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila is presented. Essentially, the procedure, here designated as purification by selective interaction (PSI), entails the incubation of media containing PLA1 with liposomes made of soy bean phospholipids. The PLA1-lipid complexes are precipitated by the addition of CaCl2 and collected by centrifugation. Elution of the PLA1 is effected by treating the complexes with 40% dimethylformamide, a reversible inhibitor of this enzyme, which is easily removed by dialysis. In combination with DEAE cellulose ion exchange chromatography, PSI yielded homogeneous PLA1 preparations with a 14% recovery and a 416-fold increase in specific activity. This procedure, which can be completed within 1 day, may prove useful for the isolation of phospholipases from other sources. This practical method for the purification of a microbial PLA1 opens the way to large-scale production of these types of enzyme, which are not as yet commercially available.

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Previous work indicated that diacylglycerol (DG) molecules translocate across the cytoplasm of mammalian cells, a process relevant to the signalling role of this lipid as protein kinase C activator. Here we investigated the possible mechanism underlying DG translocation. We examined the interaction between 1,2-di-[1-14C]oleoyl-sn-glycerol and rat liver cytosol (rlc) using assays based on Lipidex-1000 and on coelution on Sepharose CL 6B. We measured high DG binding activity and found that it resides in cytosolic proteins and not in cytosolic lipids. Chromatography of rlc proteins on Sepharose CL 6B showed profiles in which the activity measured by either method coincided. Further, we showed that the DG-rlc protein interaction results in the stabilization of DG in a micellar form, eluting in the void volume of Sepharose CL 6B. Such stabilized micelles are reminiscent of insect lipophorins and may represent a new, thus far unrecognized, mode of lipid transport within living cells.

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This study examines the changes in cellular lipids that take place when Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes and metacyclic trypomastigotes are transferred from 28 to 37 degrees C. We found a rise in the sterol to phospholipid ratio, as well as in the triacylglycerol and steryl ester cellular content in T. cruzi epimastigotes. In addition, saturated to unsaturated fatty acid ratios in phospholipids increase. This latter effect appears to be due to two concurrent processes. Firstly, fatty acyl delta9 and, especially, delta12 desaturations are significantly diminished at 37 degrees C. Secondly, triacylglycerols and steryl esters undergo changes in their fatty acyl composition opposite to those simultaneously observed in phospholipids, i.e. the ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids markedly decreases. Similar alterations in each of the lipid classes and in the fatty acid composition of polar and neutral lipids were found in cultured metacyclic trypomastigotes on exposure to the same shift-up. These observations suggest that a global remodeling of cellular lipids that involves extensive fatty acid exchange between neutral and polar lipid pools represents a novel and important mechanism of adaptation of the parasites to the temperature changes they encounter in their life cycle.

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We examined the role of protein kinase C alpha (PKC alpha ) in the stimulation of DNA synthesis of Swiss 3T3 cells induced by bombesin, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). We found that cells in which this kinase had been down-regulated showed a partially abrogated mitogenic response to bombesin. The response to PDGF was unaltered; however, the response to PMA was completely suppressed. The mitogenic effect of maximal doses of bombesin and PMA combined was greater than that of either agent alone, suggesting that bombesin does not fully activate the PKC pathway. Accordingly, bombesin-induced PKC alpha translocation from cytosol to membranes was partial, while that observed with PMA was essentially complete. Moreover, exposure to Ro-31-8220, a PKC inhibitor, had significantly greater effects on the response to PMA than on that to bombesin. Our findings point out different roles that PKC alpha may play in diversely activated cells: while, in the case of PMA, stimulation of this kinase may be necessary and sufficient to induce proliferation, it appears to be necessary only for a full response to bombesin, and redundant among the mechanisms triggered by PDGF.

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Coelenterates produce potent hemolysins inhibited by sphingomyelin (SM). Remarkably, instead of this lipid, their membranes contain a phosphono analogue of it. Using coelenterolysin (CL), a toxin produced by the sea anemone Phymactis clematis, we have examined a possible connection between these two peculiar traits. Our experiments showed that, while SM binds this lysin and inhibits its hemolytic activity, the endogenous PnSL do neither. In addition, liposomes made of bovine erythrocyte lipids are rapidly disrupted by CL, while those made of P. clematis lipids are completely resistant to it. However, if small amounts of SM are added to the P. clematis lipids, the resulting liposomes become sensitive to CL. Taken together, our results show for the first time that substitution of SM by its phosphono analogue is the molecular basis for the selectivity of an anthozoan toxin. We therefore propose that exotoxin production and membrane composition are coadapted traits that confer on the coelenterates a significant evolutionary advantage.

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A novel phospholipid, 1-fatty acyl-2-(12-aminododecyl) phosphatidylcholine (APC), was synthesized and reacted with two different activated agarose matrices, differing in the spacer arm length: N-hydroxysuccinimidylester agarose (1-atom spacer arm) and N-hydroxysuccinimidylester-6-aminohexanoic acid agarose (8-atom spacer arm). Both immobilized phosphatidylcholines were readily degraded by Bacillus cereus phospholipase C at similar rates. By contrast, Crotalus adamanteus phospholipase A2 hydrolyzed long-spacer arm phosphatidylcholine, but had less than one tenth of the activity towards the short-spacer arm one. These results are interpreted in terms of a chain length-related steric hindrance caused by the matrix, affecting phospholipase A2 but not phospholipase C activity, supporting the view that the first involves a deeper burrowing of the substrate into the enzyme molecule.

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We have studied the effects of lovastatin, an inhibitor of hydroxy-methylglutaryl-CoA-reductase, on cultures of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes. It inhibits growth at 10 and 30 micrograms per ml; these effects are reverted by 100 microM of squalene, but not by 100 microM of cholesterol. Lovastatin at the same amounts inhibits [14C]acetate incorporatin into sterols, isolated either by digitonin precipitation or thin layer chromatography. At 50 micrograms per ml it kills most of the trypanosomes. These concentrations are below reported toxic levels for mammals; this drug and its analogs should, therefore, be tested as chemotherapeutic agents against Chagas' disease.

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In an attempt to extend our knowledge of the biology of feeding of the ciliateTetrahymena thermophila, this organism was grown axenically on complex organic material. The nutrient substrate was based on autoclaved wheat grains and adjusted to either pH 5.5 or 7.5. In wild type cultures the cells grew and multiplied only under acidic conditions. In cultures of a mutant cell line blocked in the secretion of acid hydrolases the cells did not grow at either pH value. Thus released acid hydrolases may play a key role in the utilization of complex nutrients in combination with uptake of small organic molecules. Mechanisms in the feeding biology ofTetrahymena thermophila andParamecium tetraurelia are compared.