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Aluminosilicates are adsorbents able to bind mycotoxins, and their chemical modification increases their affinity to adsorb low-polarity mycotoxins. To further investigate if the inclusion of salts in bentonite modifies its adsorptive capacity, we studied T-2 toxin adsorption in natural bentonite (NB) and when modified with quaternary ammonium salts differing in polarity and chain length: myristyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (B14), cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (B16) and benzyl dimethyl stearyl ammonium chloride (B18). The results showed that quaternary salts made bentonite: displace monovalent (Na+1, K+1) and divalent (Mg+2, Ca+2) ions; reduce its porosity; change its compaction and structure, becoming more crystalline and ordered; and modify the charge balance of sheets. T-2 adsorption was higher in all modified materials compared to NB (p ≤ 0.0001), and B16 (42.96%) better adsorbed T-2 compared to B18 (35.80%; p = 0.0066). B14 (38.40%) showed no differences compared to B16 and B18 (p > 0.05). We described the T-2 adsorption mechanism in B16, in which hydrogen bond interactions, Van der Waals forces and the replacement of the salt by T-2 were found. Our results showed that interaction types due to the inclusion in B16 might be more important than the hydrocarbon chain length to improve the adsorptive capacity of bentonite.

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Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal mycoestrogen produced by the Fusarium genus. ZEN and its metabolites compete with 17-beta estradiol for cytosolic estrogen receptors, causing reproductive alterations in vertebrates. ZEN has also been associated with toxic and genotoxic effects, as well as an increased risk for endometrial adenocarcinomas or hyperplasia, breast cancer, and oxidative damage, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Previous studies have monitored cellular processes through levels of transcripts associated with Phase I Xenobiotic Metabolism (Cyp6g1 and Cyp6a2), oxidative stress (hsp60 and hsp70), apoptosis (hid, grim, and reaper), and DNA damage genes (Dmp53). In this study, we evaluated the survival and genotoxicity of ZEN, as well as its effects on emergence rate and fecundity in Drosophila melanogaster. Additionally, we determined levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) using the D. melanogaster flare and Oregon R(R)-flare strains, which differ in levels of Cyp450 gene expression. Our results showed that ZEN toxicity did not increase mortality by more than 30%. We tested three ZEN concentrations (100, 200, and 400 µM) and found that none of the concentrations were genotoxic but were cytotoxic. Taking into account that it has previously been demonstrated that ZEN administration increased hsp60 expression levels and apoptosis gene transcripts in both strains, the data agree with an increase in ROS and development and fecundity alterations. Since Drosophila lacks homologous genes for mammalian estrogen receptors alpha and beta, the effects of this mycotoxin can be explained by a mechanism different from estrogenic activity.

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There is an expanding market for beer of different flavors. This study aimed to prepare a craft Belgian-style pale ale with a non-Saccharomyces yeast. Pichia kudriavzevii 4A was used as a sole starter culture, and malted barley as the only substrate. The ingredients and brewing process were carefully monitored to ensure the quality and innocuousness of the beverage. During fermentation, the yeast consumed 89.7% of total sugars and produced 13.8% v/v of ethanol. The product was fermented and then aged for 8 days, adjusted to 5% v/v alcohol, and analyzed. There were no traces of mycotoxins, lead, arsenic, methanol, or microbiological contamination that would compromise consumer health. According to the physicochemical analysis, the final ethanol concentration (5.2% v/v) and other characteristics complied with national and international guidelines. The ethyl acetate and isoamyl alcohol present are known to confer sweet and fruity flavors. The sensory test defined the beverage as refreshing and as having an apple and pear flavor, a banana aroma, and a good level of bitterness. The judges preferred it over a commercial reference sample of Belgian-style pale ale made from S. cerevisiae. Hence, P. kudriavzevii 4A has the potential for use in the beer industry.

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Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered one of the main mycotoxins responsible for health problems and considerable economic losses in the feed industry. The aim was to study OTA's detoxifying potential of commercial protease enzymes: (i) Ananas comosus bromelain cysteine-protease, (ii) bovine trypsin serine-protease and (iii) Bacillus subtilis neutral metalloendopeptidase. In silico studies were performed with reference ligands and T-2 toxin as control, and in vitro experiments. In silico study results showed that tested toxins interacted near the catalytic triad, similar to how the reference ligands behave in all tested proteases. Likewise, based on the proximity of the amino acids in the most stable poses, the chemical reaction mechanisms for the transformation of OTA were proposed. In vitro experiments showed that while bromelain reduced OTA's concentration in 7.64% at pH 4.6; trypsin at 10.69% and the neutral metalloendopeptidase in 8.2%, 14.44%, 45.26% at pH 4.6, 5 and 7, respectively (p < 0.05). The less harmful α-ochratoxin was confirmed with trypsin and the metalloendopeptidase. This study is the first attempt to demonstrate that: (i) bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyse OTA in acidic pH conditions with low efficiency and (ii) the metalloendopeptidase was an effective OTA bio-detoxifier. This study confirmed α-ochratoxin as a final product of the enzymatic reactions in real-time practical information on OTA degradation rate, since in vitro experiments simulated the time that food spends in poultry intestines, as well as their natural pH and temperature conditions.

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BACKGROUND: Mexico is one of the most floristically rich countries in the world. Despite significant contributions made on the understanding of its unique flora, the knowledge on its diversity, geographic distribution and human uses, is still largely fragmented. Unfortunately, deforestation is heavily impacting this country and native tree species are under threat. The loss of trees has a direct impact on vital ecosystem services, affecting the natural capital of Mexico and people's livelihoods. Given the importance of trees in Mexico for many aspects of human well-being, it is critical to have a more complete understanding of their diversity, distribution, traditional uses and conservation status. We aimed to produce the most comprehensive database and catalogue on native trees of Mexico by filling those gaps, to support their in situ and ex situ conservation, promote their sustainable use, and inform reforestation and livelihoods programmes. METHODS: A database with all the tree species reported for Mexico was prepared by compiling information from herbaria and reviewing the available floras. Species names were reconciled and various specialised sources were used to extract additional species information, i.e. endemic status, threat status, availability in seed collections, reports on plant uses and conservation actions currently in place. With this information, a comprehensive catalogue of native trees from Mexico was redacted. Available georeferenced records were used to map each species distribution and perform spatial analyses to identify gaps of information and priority areas for their conservation and exploration. RESULTS: Mexico has at least 2,885 native tree species, belonging to 612 genera and 128 families. Fabaceae is the most represented family and Quercus the most represented genus. Approximately 44% of tree species are endemic to the country. The southern part of the country showed the highest values of species richness. Six hundred and seventy-four species have at least one documented human use. In terms of conservation assessment, ca. 33% of species have been assessed by either the IUCN Red List (919) or the National protection catalogue "NORMA Oficial Mexicana NOM-059" (29) or both (45). Additionally, 98 species have been included in the CITES listing for protection. In terms of existing conservation efforts, 19% of species have ex situ protection in seed banks, while protected areas overlap with all the identified peaks of species richness, except for those in the states of Veracruz and Chiapas. This work constitutes a key milestone for the knowledge, management, and conservation of the Mexican native trees. The two areas with high density of tree species identified in Veracruz and Chiapas represent two priority areas for tree conservation in Mexico, where integrated in situ and ex situ conservation efforts should be focused.

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Background: Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is a pollutant that causes deleterious effects on human and environmental health. Certain microbial cultures have shown the ability to degrade MTBE, suggesting that a novel bacterial species capable of degrading MTBE could be recovered. The goal of this study was to isolate, identify and characterize the members of a bacterial consortium capable of degrading MTBE. Results: The IPN-120526 bacterial consortium was obtained through batch enrichment using MTBE as the sole carbon and energy source. The cultivable fraction of the consortium was identified; of the isolates, only Stenotrophomonas maltophilia IPN-TD and Sphingopyxis sp. IPN-TE were capable of degrading MTBE. To the best of our knowledge, this report is the first demonstrating that S. maltophilia and Sphingopyxis sp. are capable of degrading MTBE. The degradation kinetics of MTBE demonstrated that S. maltophilia IPN-TD had a significantly higher overall MTBE degradation efficiency and rate (48.39 ± 3.18% and 1.56 ± 0.12 mg L-1 h-1, respectively) than the IPN-120526 consortium (38.59 ± 2.17% and 1.25 ± 0.087 mg L-1 respectively). The kinetics of MTBE removal by both cultures fit first-order and pseudo-first-order reaction models. Conclusions: These findings suggest that S. maltophilia IPN-TD in axenic culture has considerable potential for the detoxification of MTBE-contaminated water.

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