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PURPOSE: Despite the availability of the Unified Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) Rating Scale (UMSARS) for almost two decades, studies still use scales developed for Parkinson's disease (PD) or ataxia (ATX). Our aim was to evaluate the use of UMSARS (part II, motor) compared to other motor rating scales in patients with MSA. METHODS: A Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-compliant literature search was conducted concerning studies of patients with MSA, reporting motor assessment with clinical rating scales, and focusing on the frequency of UMSARS use. RESULTS: We included 261 articles, of which 42.9% did not use UMSARS, but rather scales for PD (59.8%), ATX (24.1%), or both (14.3%). Although UMSARS use increased with time, misuse of PD and ATX scales persists, with no evidence of a decremental trend. CONCLUSIONS: Although higher in observational studies, the misuse of PD and ATX-related scales in MSA patients persists in prospective (planned) trials. Reasons for that must be addressed.

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For centuries, cannabis has been used with many different purposes, including medicinal use, usually bypassing any formal approval process. However, during the last decade, interest in cannabis in medicine has been increasing, and several countries, including the United States and Canada, have produced their own legislation about marihuana and cannabis-based medicines. Because of this, interest in research has been increasing and evidence about its medical effects is becoming necessary. We conducted a review examining the evidence of cannabis in pain. Cannabis had been shown to be useful in acute and chronic pain, however recently, these results have been controverted. Within the different types of chronic pain, it has a weak evidence for neuropathic, rheumatic pain, and headache, modest evidence for multiple sclerosis related pain, and as adjuvant therapy in cancer pain. There is no strong evidence to recommend cannabis in order to decrease opioids in patients with chronic use. Even though cannabis-based medications appear to be mostly safe, mild adverse effects are common; somnolence, sedation, amnesia, euphoric mood, hyperhidrosis, paranoia, and confusion may limit the use of cannabis in clinical practice. Risks have not been systematically analyzed. Special concern arises on how adverse effect might affect vulnerable population such as elderly patients. More research is needed in order to evaluate benefits and risks, as well as the ideal administration route and dosages. As cannabis use increases in several countries, answers to these questions might be coming soon.

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RESUMEN La toxoplasmosis es una de las infecciones más comunes en humanos. Debido a la prevalência de la coinfección con VIH, conlleva un alto impacto en los sistemas de salud. Los seres humanos pueden infectarse de toxoplasma al consumir carne mal cocinada de cordero o cerdo que contenga los quistes tisulares, o al consumir agua o alimentos contaminados con heces de gatos. Una vez presente en el humano, el T. gondii se multiplica en los enterocitos y se disemina por el torrente sanguíneo o linfático, parasitando las células musculares, de la retina y frecuentemente el sistema nervioso central. La técnica más usada para la detección de IgG o IgM contra toxoplasma es la técnica de Elisa. Los anticuerpos IgG pueden estar elevados sin tener una infección activa, por lo que el diagnóstico con IgM y posteriormente con test de avidez es fundamental. El líquido cefalorraquídeo muestra pleocitosis leve e hiperproteinorraquia. Las neuroimágenes son de alta utilidad, ya que usualmente la punción lumbar puede estar contraindicada por lesiones que producen efecto de masa. Idealmente, los pacientes deben ser valorados con resonancia magnética en la que típicamente se observan lesiones eccéntricas en ganglios basales con realce en anillo, posteriormente a la aplicación de contraste. Se debe considerar el linfoma del sistema nervioso central como diagnóstico diferencial. El tratamiento suele iniciarse de manera empírica con pirimetamina, sulfadiazina y ácido folínico, con evaluación de la mejoría imagenológica a los 10-14 días. Si no se encuentra disponible, es posible el tratamiento con trimetoprin-sulfametoxazol. El inicio temprano del tratamiento antibiótico es fundamental para el buen pronóstico; en cuatro meses se observa recuperación neurológica completa en menos del 20 % de los casos y a los tres años de seguimiento en aproximadamente el 30 % de los pacientes.

SUMMARY Toxoplasmosis is one of the most common infections in humans. Due to the prevalence of coinfection with HIV, it carries a high impact on health systems. Humans can become infected with toxoplasma by consuming undercooked lamb or pork meat that contains tissue cysts, or by consuming water or food contaminated with cat feces. Once present in humans, T. gondii multiplies in enterocytes and spreads through the blood or lymphatic stream, parasitizing muscle cells, the retina, and frequently the Central Nervous System. The most used technique for the detection of IgG or IgM against toxoplasma is the ELISA technique. IgG antibodies can be elevated without having an active infection, so diagnosis with IgM and later with avidity test is essential. Cerebrospinal fluid shows mild pleocytosis and hyperprotein spinal cord. Neuroimaging is highly useful, since lumbar puncture can usually be contraindicated due to lesions that produce a mass effect. Ideally, patients should be evaluated with magnetic resonance imaging, which typically shows eccentric lesions in the basal ganglia with ring enhancement after the application of contrast. Central Nervous System lymphoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis. Treatment is usually started empirically with pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine, and folinic acid, with evaluation of imaging improvement at 10-14 days. If not available, treatment with trimethoprine-sulfamethoxazole is possible. The early initiation of antibiotic treatment is essential for a good prognosis, in 4 months complete neurological recovery is observed in less than 20 % of cases and after 3 years of follow-up in approximately 30 % of patients.

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Resumen Introducción: si bien los cannabinoides se han utilizado durante varios años, apenas recientemente se han descrito los descubrimientos sobre sus mecanismos de acción y blancos terapéuticos, así como las alteraciones en el sistema endocannabinoide, observadas en diversas enfermedades y condiciones que se manifiestan con dolor, inflamación, patologías autoinmunes y distintos desórdenes específicos de los órganos. La enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal (EII) agrupa dos condiciones idiopáticas crónicas con patogénesis incierta, en las que se ha identificado que una desregulación del sistema inmune desempeña un papel importante. Así, pues se necesita desarrollar tratamientos alternativos para estos pacientes, ya que solo una minoría de ellos alcanza una remisión de la enfermedad. Nuestro objetivo es revisar las evidencias recientes relacionadas con el uso de cánnabis en la colitis ulcerativa (CU) y en la enfermedad de Crohn (EC). Métodos: se realizó una revisión narrativa focalizada, a partir de las bases de datos de búsqueda de Pubmed y Embase. Los artículos pertinentes fueron revisados y resumidos en forma narrativa. Resultados: los dos componentes principales del cannabis, el cannabidiol (CBD) y el tetrahidrocannabinol (THC), han sido estudiados extensivamente y han probado causar efectos antiinflamatorios y antinociceptivos. Se han descrito ampliamente las propiedades de estos componentes en el control sintomático de la CU y de la EC. No obstante, se sugieren estudios de alta calidad para seguir evaluando la eficacia y la seguridad del uso del cannabis en pacientes con la EII.

Abstract Introduction: Although cannabinoids have been used for several years, only recently have their mechanisms of action and therapeutic targets been described. Alterations in the endocannabinoid system have been observed in various diseases and conditions such as pain, inflammation, autoimmune diseases and various specific disorders. Inflammatory bowel disease groups two chronic idiopathic conditions with uncertain pathogeneses in which deregulation of the immune system plays an important role. Alternative treatments need to be developed for these patients since only a minority of patients achieve disease remission. Our goal is to review recent evidence related to the use of cannabis to treat ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Methods: This is a focused narrative review based on searches of Pubmed and Embase. Relevant articles have been reviewed and summarized in narrative form. Results: The two main components of cannabis, CBD and THC, have been extensively studied, and their anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects have been tested. The effects of these components for control of the symptoms of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease have been widely described. However, high quality studies are needed to continue evaluating the efficacy and safety of cannabis use in patients with inflammatory bowel disease.

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SUMMARY Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder that affects approximately 1% of the world's pop7u-lation. About one third of those patients suffer from treatment-resistant epilepsy (TRE8), defined as failure to stop seizures despite adequate trials of at least two medications at therapeutic dosa-ges. There has been a growing interest in the development of novel antiepileptic drugs with diffe-rent mechanisms of action. This narrative review, based on 42 references retrieved from Scopus and Medline, discusses the scientific data from human and animal studies regarding the efficacy of cannabis-based treatment for epilepsy. Benefits have been described in preclinical and cli-nical studies in children, but ongoing research will clarify the real role of cannabinoids in TRE.

RESUMEN La epilepsia es un desorden neurológico común que afecta aproximadamente al 1% de la pobla-ción mundial. Alrededor de un tercio de los pacientes sufren de epilepsia resistente al tratamiento, que se define como la falla de parar las crisis epilépticas a pesar de haber recibido tratamiento con dos medicamentos a dosis terapéuticas. Se ha visto interés en el desarrollo de medicamentos antiepilépticos con dife-rentes mecanismos de acción. Esta revisión narrativa se basó en 42 referencias extraídas de Scopus y Medli-ne, que discuten hallazgos científicos sobre estudios en humanos y animales acerca de la eficacia del cannabis para el tratamiento de epilepsia. Los beneficios se des-cribieron en estudios preclínicos y clínicos en niños, sin embargo investigaciones en curso clarificarán el papel real de los cannabinoides para la epilepsia resistente al tratamiento.

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