RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Phytophthora species secrete cytoplasmic effectors from a family named Crinkler (CRN), which are characterised by the presence of conserved specific domains in the N- and C-terminal regions. P. parasitica causes disease in a wide range of host plants, however the role of CRN effectors in these interactions remains unclear. Here, we aimed to: (i) identify candidate CRN encoding genes in P. parasitica genomes; (ii) evaluate the transcriptional expression of PpCRN (Phytophthora parasitica Crinkler candidate) during the P. parasitica interaction with Citrus sunki (high susceptible) and Poncirus trifoliata (resistant); and (iii) functionally characterize two PpCRNs in the model plant Nicotiana benthamiana. RESULTS: Our in silico analyses identified 80 putative PpCRN effectors in the genome of P. parasitica isolate 'IAC 01/95.1'. Transcriptional analysis revealed differential gene expression of 20 PpCRN candidates during the interaction with the susceptible Citrus sunki and the resistant Poncirus trifoliata. We have also found that P. parasitica is able to recognize different citrus hosts and accordingly modulates PpCRNs expression. Additionally, two PpCRN effectors, namely PpCRN7 and PpCRN20, were further characterized via transient gene expression in N. benthamiana leaves. The elicitin INF-1-induced Hypersensitivity Response (HR) was increased by an additive effect driven by PpCRN7 expression, whereas PpCRN20 expression suppressed HR response in N. benthamiana leaves. Despite contrasting functions related to HR, both effectors increased the susceptibility of plants to P. parasitica. CONCLUSIONS: PpCRN7 and PpCRN20 have the ability to increase P. parasitica pathogenicity and may play important roles at different stages of infection. These PpCRN-associated mechanisms are now targets of biotechnological studies aiming to break pathogen's virulence and to promote plant resistance.
Asunto(s)
Muerte Celular , Citrus/fisiología , Interacciones Huésped-Patógeno , Phytophthora/genética , Poncirus/fisiología , Citrus/parasitología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Poncirus/parasitologíaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The present study aimed to identify and characterize the presence of bacteria carried by ants, and check the distribution of these ants in the physical confines of a medium-sized hospital in São Paulo county, Brazil. METHODS: The ants were collected from March 2012 to February 2013. Attractive non-toxic baits were used to catch the ants, and the sectors considered for the study were medical wards, outdoor areas, obstetric unit, reception area, kitchen, surgical centres, paediatric clinic and intensive care unit. Captured ants were classified using taxonomic keys and subsequently immersed in Brain Heart Infusion broth. RESULTS: Paratrechina spp. and Monomorium floricola ants were found most frequently in the hospital. Ants had a high capacity for carrying bacteria, and the isolates comprised 68.8% Gram-positive, spore-producing bacilli (Bacillus spp. and Listeria spp.); 14.7% Gram-negative bacilli (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella spp.); and 16.4% Gram-positive cocci (Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus). Among the areas being evaluated, the medical wards had the largest number of ants captured, and therefore the most bacteria. CONCLUSIONS: Ants in hospitals may carry both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and methods of controlling urban ants should be adopted and strictly adhered to, to minimize the risk of infection in hospital patients.