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Fetal sex plays an important role in modifying the course and complications related to pregnancy and may also have an impact on maternal health and well-being both during and after pregnancy. The goal of this article is to review and summarize the findings from published research on physiologic and pathologic changes that may be affected by fetal sex and the effect of these changes on the maternal and obstetrical outcomes. This will help create awareness that fetal sex is not just a random chance event but an interactive process between the mother, the placenta, and the fetus. The reported effects of male sex on the course of pregnancy and delivery include higher incidence of preterm labor in singletons and twins, failure of progression in labor, true umbilical cord knots, cord prolapse, nuchal cord, higher cesarean section rate, higher heart rate variability with increased frequency, and duration of decelerations without acidemia and increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus through the poor beta cells function. Similarly, female fetal sex has been reported to modify pregnancy and delivery outcomes including altered fetal cardiac hemodynamics, increased hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, higher vulnerability of developing type 2 DM after pregnancy possibly because of influences on increased maternal insulin resistance. Placental function is also influenced by fetal sex. Vitamin D metabolism in the placenta varies by fetal sex; and the placenta of a female fetus is more responsive to the relaxing action of magnesium sulfate. Male and female feto-placental units also vary in their responses to environmental toxin exposure. The association of fetal sex with stillbirths is controversial with many studies reporting higher risk of stillbirth in male fetuses; although some smaller and limited studies have reported more stillbirths with female fetus pregnancies. Maternal status such as BMI may in turn also affect the fetus and the placenta in a sex-specific manner. There is probably a sex-specific maternal-placental-fetal interaction that has significant biological implications of which the mechanisms may be genetic, epigenetic, or hormonal. Determination of fetal sex may therefore be an important consideration in management of pregnancy and childbirth.

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OBJECTIVE: To examine rates of unexplained intrauterine fetal demise (IUFD) and neonatal morbidity in uncomplicated term pregnancies to identify the optimal gestational age for delivery. METHODS: A retrospective case control study was performed with singleton pregnancies delivered between 37 0/7 weeks and 42 6/7 weeks. Exclusion criteria were "complicated pregnancies": emergency deliveries, maternal hypertension, diabetes, infection, fetal disease/malformations and placental abnormalities. RESULTS: Nineteen thousand two hundred and sixty-four maternal/infant pairs were examined. The overall rate of NICU admission was 2.7% and the rate of unexplained IUFD was 2.02 per 1000 births. The lowest rate of IUFD was found at 39 weeks (1.40 per 1000 births). Odds ratios adjusted for maternal smoking, ethnicity, age and mode of delivery showed 2.74 (95% CI 0.35-21.83) risk of IUFD at 42 versus 39 weeks, 2.09 (1.47-2.98) risk of NICU admission at 37 versus 38 weeks, 2.54 (1.62-3.97) risk of respiratory morbidity at 37 versus 38 weeks and 3.38 (1.84-6.18) risk of transient tachypnea of the newborn or respiratory distress syndrome at 37 versus 38 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Neonatal respiratory morbidity was lowest for deliveries at 38-39 weeks. IUFD was 2.74 times more likely at 42 weeks versus 39 weeks. Our findings support current guidelines advising clinicians when to deliver term pregnancies.

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Although insulin remains the standard medication for the treatment of all types of patients with diabetes during pregnancy, oral hypoglycemics may be considered as alternative medications in the treatment of some types of diabetes in pregnancy.

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OBJECTIVE: To compare neonatal outcomes following deliveries <39 weeks after confirmation of fetal lung maturity with scheduled deliveries ≥39 weeks. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study examining neonatal outcomes of women who were delivered following documented fetal pulmonary maturity at 36, 37, and 38 weeks compared to women undergoing a scheduled delivery at 39, 40, and 41 weeks. The χ(2)-test and Student's t-test were used to compare categorical and continuous data, respectively. RESULTS: Delivery prior to 39 weeks following fetal pulmonary maturity was associated with a 8.4% composite neonatal morbidity rate as compared to 3.3% for deliveries at 39 weeks or greater (relative risk [RR] 2.9; confidence interval [CI] 2.4-3.6). Neonatal respiratory morbidity was significantly higher (5.4%) for those delivering at less than 39 weeks with documented fetal pulmonary maturity as compared to 2.1% for those delivering at 39 weeks or greater (RR 3.0; CI 2.3-3.9). Increased neonatal morbidity persisted for those delivered prior to 39 weeks even after excluding all diabetics (p < 0.001). Significant increases in neonatal morbidity were noted for deliveries prior to 39 weeks regardless of the mode of delivery. CONCLUSION: Despite fetal pulmonary maturity, delivery before 39 weeks is associated with significantly increased neonatal morbidity when compared to scheduled deliveries at 39 weeks or greater.

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BACKGROUND: Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic cholestatic liver disease associated with fibrosis and inflammation of the bile ducts. Its complications include symptoms from pruritis and fatigue to dominant strictures, cholangiocarcinoma and liver failure necessitating liver transplant. Due to its predominance in young males, little is reported regarding PSC and pregnancy. CASE: We report a case of a pregnant woman with PSC whose symptoms were initially unresponsive to the traditional treatment of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) early in her pregnancy but subsequently did well using high dose steroids for the duration of her pregnancy. CONCLUSION: With close management, successful pregnancy outcomes seem possible with patients with PSC, even when diagnosed multiple years prior to pregnancy, if not with UDCA, then possibly with steroid treatment.

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OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine changes in screening and performance of invasive diagnostic procedures for Down syndrome between 2001 and 2007. STUDY DESIGN: The Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine members completed a survey in 2007 regarding screening tests and diagnostic procedures for Down syndrome. With the use of descriptive statistics, the chi(2) test, and the Student t test, responses from 2007 were compared with responses from a similar 2001 survey. RESULTS: Performance of first-trimester screening more than doubled from 2001-2007 (43.1% in 2001, 97.3% in 2007; P < .0001). Between 2001 and 2007, the use of the quad screen increased 10-fold (8.5% in 2001, 85.6% in 2007; P < .0001). There was an estimated 20% decrease in invasive diagnostic procedures that were performed in risk-positive women (53.7% in 2001, 34.2% in 2007; P < .0001). In 2007, the average fetal loss rates that were quoted by maternal-fetal medicine specialists after chorionic villous sampling was 1:160 and after an amniocentesis was 1:493. CONCLUSION: Down syndrome screening evolved from 2001-2007, with an increasing emphasis on first-trimester screening. With more efficacious screening, the number of invasive procedures has declined.

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Recently, applications for subspecialty fellowship positions in obstetrics and gynecology have increased dramatically. A survey completed by fellows in Maternal-Fetal Medicine (MFM), Reproductive Endocrinology (REI), Gynecologic Oncology (Gyn Onc), and Urogynecology (Urogyn) training programs in the United States between January and March 2006 was aimed at determining why this trend was occuring. Of 449 fellows in 2006, 192 (42.8%) responded. The two most influential factors in all four subspecialties were interest and lifestyle (P < .001). Although these factors were similar throughout all subspecialties, variations exist in how fellows rated each factor by subspecialty. An overwhelming majority (99%) of fellows were either "very satisfied" or "satisfied" with their decisions to pursue fellowship training. The majority of fellows believe that when compared to a generalist Obstetrician/Gynecologist (OB/GYN) they will have a reduced workload, decreased liability, and a higher salary. The recent increase in the number of fellowship applicants is most likely due to a complex interplay of multiple factors.

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OBJECTIVE: To compare maternal and neonatal outcomes of pregestational and gestational diabetics treated with insulin glargine versus Neutral Protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study examining outcomes from pregestational and gestational diabetics treated with either insulin regimen. Comparisons were made using the t-test for continuous data and the Chi-square or Fisher's exact test for categorical data. RESULTS: Fifty-two pregnant women treated with insulin glargine were compared with 60 pregnant women treated with NPH. No significant differences in rates of maternal complications were noted. No significant differences in neonatal outcomes for gestational diabetics were noted. Among pregestational diabetics treated with insulin glargine, significantly fewer macrosomic infants (relative risk [RR], 0.38; 95% confidence intervals (CI), 0.17-0.87; p = 0.04) and lower rates of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia (RR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.07-0.98; p = 0.05) were noted when compared with those treated with NPH. There were no cases of neonatal hypoglycemia in pregestational diabetics treated with glargine; however, 25% of infants born to mothers treated with NPH experienced hypoglycemia (p = 0.01). No fetal anomalies or deaths were observed in either treatment group. CONCLUSION: Insulin glargine use during pregnancy is not associated with increased maternal or neonatal morbidity compared with NPH insulin. Among pregestational diabetics, insulin glargine use was associated with lower rates of macrosomia, neonatal hypoglycemia and neonatal hyperbilirubinemia.

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OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether there have been changes in the use of second-trimester genetic sonograms and in the second-trimester sonographic markers used to screen for fetal aneuploidy by maternal-fetal medicine specialists in the United States from 2001 to 2007. METHODS: A survey was mailed to Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine members in the United States in April 2007 inquiring about their practice patterns regarding the genetic sonogram. Specific sonographic markers used for risk adjustment as part of the genetic sonogram were also assessed. The responses from 2007 were compared with responses from a similar survey administered in 2001 (Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187:1230-1234) using descriptive statistics, the chi(2) test, and the Wilcoxon rank sum test. RESULTS: A total of 991 responses were analyzed: 543 of 1638 (32%) in 2001 and 448 of 1756 (26%) in 2007. Significant increases (P < .0001) were noted in the number of specialists who used the genetic sonogram as a screening tool for Down syndrome and for every single sonographic marker used to adjust a woman's risk for having a fetus with Down syndrome during a genetic sonogram, except for choroid plexus cyst, clinodactyly, sandal gap toes, and widened pelvic angle. CONCLUSIONS: Practitioners in the United States are using an increasing number of second-trimester sonographic markers to help identify aneuploid fetuses. The growing acceptance of sonography to screen for fetal aneuploidy and the recommendation by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists for universal screening suggest that more resources may be necessary to meet the growing demand for second-trimester sonograms.

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OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated whether utilization of prenatal care, as measured by the Kessner index, affects the number of Down syndrome live births. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of birth certificate data of Down syndrome live births comparing 1989 to 2001 by year, maternal age, gestational age at first prenatal visit, and adequacy of prenatal care according to Kessner categories of adequacy of prenatal care. RESULTS: Down syndrome live births were inversely correlated with adequacy of prenatal care. Reductions in Down syndrome live births were seen in all categories of prenatal care in all age groups. In 2001 a minimum 30% reduction was seen in any category rising to a 58% reduction in women > or =35 years with adequate prenatal care. The largest reductions were seen in women > or =35 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Reductions in Down syndrome live births occurred in all age groups between 1989 and 2001. Utilization of prenatal care as measured by the Kessner index was associated with reductions in Down syndrome live births, with a greater reduction in women > or =35 years of age.

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BACKGROUND: A large luteinized follicular cyst can rupture or twist during pregnancy. However, in the absence of those complications a simple ovarian cyst can often be managed conservatively, provided that sonographic evaluation of the cyst is benign. Rapid growth of a simple follicular cyst is rare but may occasionally complicate pregnancy. CASE: A 25-year-old primigravida had a simple-appearing adnexal mass detected by sonogram early in pregnancy. She was followed with serial sonograms. Because of the clear sonolucent appearance of the mass and the patient's preference, a conservative management was elected. The cyst grew in size as her pregnancy progressed, became symptomatic, and necessitated surgical intervention. Cystectomy and cesarean delivery at 36+ weeks relieved the symptoms and achieved delivery of a healthy infant. CONCLUSION: Solitary luteinized follicular cysts of pregnancy have the potential to grow to a very large size and create complications related to their size alone. Conservative management of simple adnexal cysts in pregnancy, based on their sonographic appearance, can avoid risks of abdominal surgery in the second trimester of pregnancy, but in the third trimester, a large cyst can create significant complications requiring surgical intervention.

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