RESUMEN
The Voyager 2 encounter with the Neptune system included radio science investigations of the masses and densities of Neptune and Triton, the low-order gravitational harmonics of Neptune, the vertical structures of the atmospheres and ionospheres of Neptune and Triton, the composition of the atmosphere of Neptune, and characteristics of ring material. Demanding experimental requirements were met successfully, and study of the large store of collected data has begun. The initial search of the data revealed no detectable effects of ring material with optical depth tau [unknown] 0.01. Preliminary representative results include the following: 1.0243 x 10(26) and 2.141 x 10(22) kilograms for the masses of Neptune and Triton; 1640 and 2054 kilograms per cubic meter for their respective densities; 1355 +/- 7 kilometers, provisionally, for the radius of Triton; and J(2) = 3411 +/- 10(x 10(-6)) and J(4) = -26(+12)(-20)(x10(-6)) for Neptune's gravity field (J>(2) and J(4) are harmonic coefficients of the gravity field). The equatorial and polar radii of Neptune are 24,764 +/- 20 and 24,340 +/- 30 kllometers, respectively, at the 10(5)-pascal (1 bar) pressure level. Neptune's atmosphere was probed to a pressure level of about 5 x 10(5) pascals, and effects of a methane cloud region and probable ammonia absorption below the cloud are evident in the data. Results for the mixing ratios of helium and ammonia are still being investigated; the methane abundance below the clouds is at least 1 percent by volume. Derived temperature-pressure profiles to 1.2 x 10(5) pascals and 78 kelvins (K) show a lapse rate corresponding to "frozen" equilibrium of the para- and ortho-hydrogen states. Neptune's ionosphere exhibits an extended topside at a temperature of 950 +/- 160 K if H(+) is the dominant ion, and narrow ionization layers of the type previously seen at the other three giant planets. Triton has a dense ionosphere with a peak electron concentration of 46 x 10(9) per cubic meter at an altitude of 340 kilometers measured during occultation egress. Its topside plasma temperature is about 80 +/- 16 K if N(2)(+) is the principal ion. The tenuous neutral atmosphere of Triton produced distinct signatures in the occultation data; however, the accuracy of the measurements is limited by uncertainties in the frequency of the spacecraft reference oscillator. Preliminary values for the surface pressure of 1.6 +/- 0.3 pascals and an equivalent isothermal temperature of 48 +/- 5 K are suggested, on the assumption that molecular nitrogen dominates the atmosphere. The radio data may be showing the effects of a thermal inversion near the surface; this and other evidence imply that the Triton atmosphere is controlled by vapor-pressure equilibrium with surface ices, at a temperature of 38 K and a methane mixing ratio of about 10(-4).
RESUMEN
Three ice-covered moons of Jupiter, in comparison with rocky planets and Earth's moon, produce radar echoes of astounding strengths and bizarre polarizations. Scattering from buried craters can explain these and other anomalous properties of the echoes. The role of such craters is analogous to that of the water droplets that create the apparition known as "the glory," the optically bright region surrounding an observer's shadow on a cloud. Both situations involve the electromagnetic phenomenon of total internal reflection at a dielectric interface, operating in a geometry that strongly favors exact backscattering. Dim surface craters are transformed into bright glory holes by being buried under somewhat denser material, thereby increasing the intensity of their echoes by factors of hundreds. The dielectric interface thus formed at the crater walls nicely accounts for the unusual polarizations of the echoes.
RESUMEN
Voyager 2 radio occultation measurements of the Uranian atmosphere were obtained between 2 and 7 degrees south latitude. Initial atmospheric temperature profiles extend from pressures of 10 to 900 millibars over a height range of about 100 kilometers. Comparison of radio and infrared results yields mole fractions near the tropopause of 0.85 and 0.15 +/- 0.05 for molecular hydrogen and helium, respectively, if no other components are present; for this composition the tropopause is at about 52 kelvins and 110 millibars. Distinctive features in the signal intensity measurements for pressures above 900 millibars strongly favor model atmospheres that include a cloud deck of methane ice. Modeling of the intensity measurements for the cloud region and below indicates that the cloud base is near 1,300 millibars and 81 kelvins and yields an initial methane mole fraction of about 0.02 for the deep atmosphere. Scintillations in signal intensity indicate small-scale stucture throughout the stratosphere and upper troposphere. As judged from data obtained during occultation ingress, the ionosphere consists of a multilayer structure that includes two distinct layers at 2,000 and 3,500 kilometers above the 100-millibar level and an extended topside that may reach altitudes of 10,000 kilometers or more. Occultation measurements of the nine previously known rings at wavelengths of 3.6 and 13 centimeters show characteristic values of optical depth between about 0.8 and 8; the maxim value occurs in the outer region of the in ring, near its periapsis. Forward-scattered signals from this ring have properties that differ from those of any of Saturn's rings, and they are inconsistent with a discrete scattering object or local (three-dimensional) assemblies of orbiting objects. These signals suggest a new kdnd of planetary ring feature characterized by highly ordered cylindrical substructures of radial scale on the order of meters and azimuthal scale of kilometers or more. From radio data alone the mass of the Uranian system is GM(sys) = 5,794,547- 60 cubic kilometers per square second; from a combination of radio and optical navigation data the mass of Uranus alone is GM(u) = 5,793,939+/- 60 cubic kilometers per square second. From all available Voyager data, induding imaging radii, the mean uncompressed density of the five major satellites is 1.40+/- 0.07 grams per cubic centimeter; this value is consistent with a solar mix of material and apparently rules out a cometary origin of the satellites.
RESUMEN
Titan's dense and cold nitrogen atmosphere contains a small amount of methane under conditions at least approaching those at which one or both constituents would condense. The possibility of methane and nitrogen rain clouds and global methane oceans has been discussed widely. From specific features of radio occultation and other Voyager results, however, it is concluded that nitrogen does not condense on Titan and that Titan has neither global methane oceans nor a global cloud of liquid methane droplets. Certain results indirectly support the conjecture that methane does not condense at any location. However, other considerations favor a methane ice haze high in the troposphere, and liquid and solid methane might exist on the surface and as low clouds at polar latitudes.
RESUMEN
Particle orbits can be bundled in two different ways to produce narrow, Uranus-type ringlets. The usual assumption is that they are packed in a parallel manner in a structure that is essentially only two-dimensional, but it is then difficult to explain the large numbers of particles per unit area of the ring plane that are inferred from the observations. The alternative of a bundle of entwined orbits produces a three-dimensional structure of potentially large projected areal density. A start has been made in identifying possible mechanisms for stabilizing these structures, but much remains to be done, particularly for the less-studied model of entwined orbits. The two models might be discriminated observationally by differences in the motion of the line of intersection of the orbital and equatorial planes, and by the predicted radial reversal (entwined) or nonreversal (parallel) of features in occultation signatures taken at certain longitudes.
RESUMEN
Voyager 2 radio occultation measurements of Saturn's atmosphere probed to the 1.2-bar pressure level, where the temperature was 143 +/- 6 K and the lapse rate apparently equaled the dry adiabatic value of 0.85 K per kilometer. The tropopause at both mid-latitude occultation locations (36.5 degrees N and 31 degrees S) was at a pressure level of about 70 millibars and a temperature of approximately 82 K. The stratospheric structures were very similar with the temperature rising to about 140 K at the 1-millibar pressure level. The peak electron concentrations sensed were 1.7 x 10(4) and 0.64 x 10(4) per cubic centimeter in the predawn (31 degrees S) and late afternoon (36.5 degrees N) locations. The topside plasma scale heights were about 1000 kilometers for the late afternoon profile, and 260 kilometers for the lower portions and 1100 kilometers for the upper portions of the topside predawn ionosphere. Radio measurements of the masses of Tethys and Iapetus yield (7.55 +/- 0.90) x 10(20) and (18.8 +/- 1.2) x 10(20) kilograms respectively; the Tethys-Mimas resonance theory then provides a derived mass for Afimas of (0.455 +/- 0.054) x 10(20) kilograms. These values for Tethys and Mimas represent major increases from previously accepted ground-based values, and appear to reverse a suggested trend of increasing satellite density with orbital radius in the Saturnian system. Current results suggest the opposite trend, in which the intermediate-sized satellites of Saturn may represent several classes of objects that differ with respect to the relative amounts of water, ammonia, and methane ices incorporated at different temperatures during formation. The anomalously low density of lapetus might then be explained as resulting from a large hydrocarbon content, and its unusually dark surface markings as another manifestation of this same material.
RESUMEN
Voyager 1 radio occultation measurements of Titan's equatorial atmosphere successfully probed to the surface, which is provisionally placed at a radius of 2570 kilometers. Derived scale heights plus other experimental and theoretical results indicate that molecular nitrogen is the predominant atmospheric constituent. The surface pressure and temperature appear to be about 1.6 bars and 93 K, respectively. The main clouds are probably methane ice, although some condensation of nitrogen cannot be ruled out. Solar abundance arguments suggest and the measurements allow large quantities of surface methane near its triple-point temperature, so that the three phases of methane could play roles in the atmosphere and on the surface of Titan similar to those of water on Earth. Radio occultation measurements of Saturn's atmosphere near 75 degrees south latitude reached a maximum pressure of 1.4 bars, where the temperature is about 156 K. The minimum temperature is about 91 K near the 60-millibar pressure level. The measured part of the polar ionosphere of Saturn has a peak electron concentration of 2.3 x 10(4) per cubic centimeter at an altitude of 2500 kilometers above the 1-bar level in the atmosphere, and a plasma scale height at the top of the ionosphere of 560 kilometers. Attenuation of monochromatic radiation at a wavelength of 3.6 centimeters propagating obliquely through Saturn's rings is consistent with traditional values for the normal optical depth of the rings, but the near-forward scattering of this radiation by the rings indicates effective scattering particles with larger than expected diameters of 10, 8, and 2 meters in the A ring, the outer Cassini division, and the C ring, respectively. Preliminary analysis of the radio tracking data yields new values for the masses of Rhea and Titan of 4.4 +/- 0.3 x 10(-6) and 236.64 +/- 0.08 x 10(-6) times the mass of Saturn. Corresponding values for the mean densities of these objects are 1.33 +/- 0.10 and about 1.89 grams per cubic centimeter. The density of Rhea is consistent with a solar-composition mix of anhydrous rock and volatiles, while Titan is apparently enriched in silicates relative to the solar composition.
RESUMEN
Voyager 2 radio signals were observed essentially continuously during a grazing occultation of the spacecraft by the southern limb of Jupiter. Intensity data show a classic atmospheric occultation profile and the effects of turbulence and ionospheric focusing and defocusing. No reliable profile of the neutral atmosphere has yet been obtained, primarily because of a combination of large trajectory uncertainties and error multiplication effects associated with the grazing geometry of the Voyager 2 occultation. Analysis of the dispersive ionospheric refraction data yields preliminary profiles for the topside ionosphere at 66.7 degrees S (entry in the evening) and 50.1 degrees S (exit in the morning) that are reversed with respect to corresponding Voyager 1 profiles in terms of plasma concentration at a fixed altitude. Plasma scale heights and temperatures of 880 kilometers, 1200 K and 1040 kilometers, 1600 K were obtained for morning and evening conditions, respectively. Preliminary reduction of the pre-encounter occultation of Voyager 1 by the Io torus yields an average plasma density of about 1000 electrons per cubic centimeter.
RESUMEN
The gravitational field of the sun acts as a spherical lens to magnify the intensity of radiation from a distant source along a semi-infinite focal line. A spacecraft anywhere on that line in principle could observe, eavesdrop, and communicate over interstellar distances, using equipment comparable in size and power with what is now used for interplanetary distances. If one neglects coronal effects, the maximum magnification factor for coherent radiation is inversely proportional to the wavelength, being 100 million at 1 millimeter. The principal difficulties are that the nearest point on the focal half-line is about 550 times the sun-earth distance, separate spacecraft would be needed to work with each stellar system of interest, and the solar corona would severely limit the intensity of coherent radiation while also restricting operations to relatively short wavelengths.
RESUMEN
A preliminarv profile of the atmosphere of Jupiter in the South Equatorial Belt shows (i) the tropopause occurring at a pressure level of 100 millibars and temperature of about 113K, (ii) a higher warm inversion layer at about the 35-millibar level, and (iii) a lower-altitude constant lapse rate matching the adiabatic value of about 2 K per kilometer, with the temperatutre reaching 150 K at the 600-millibar level. Preliminary afternoon and predawn ionospheric profiles at 12 degrees south latitude and near the equator, respectively, have topside plasma scale heights of 590 kilometers changing to 960 kilometers above an altitucde of 3500 kilometers for the dayside, and about 960 kilomneters at all measured heights above the peak for the nightside. The higher value of scale height corresponds to a plasma temperature of 1100 K under the assumption of a plasma of protons and electrons in ambipolar diffusive equilibrium. The peak electron concentration in the upper ionosphere is approximately 2 x 10(5) per cubic centimeter for the dayside and about a factor of 10 less for the nightside. These peaks occur at altitudes of 1600 and 2300 kilometers, respectively. Continuing analyses are expected to extend and refine these results, and to be used to investigate other regions and phenomena.
RESUMEN
The atmospheric temperature-pressure profiles derived from the Pioneer 10-Pioneer 11 radio occultation experiment are mutually consistent but differ markedly from the results of other investigations. Current studies indicate that the occultation interpretation contains errors that were made very large by an inherent magnification effect, and that these errors have both geometrical and equipment sources. The apparent consistency between the Pioneer 10 and the Pioneer 11 results must be considered fortuitous. Despite these difficulties, the occultation technique, when optimally instrumented and carefully interpreted, retains its potential for atmospheric profile measurements of high accuracy and resolution.
RESUMEN
The common ranges of pressure and temperature of the atmosphere of Venus measured last October establish the connection between the Soviet Venera 4 altitude scale and the United States Mariner V radial scale. But if the Venera 4 measurements extended to the surface, as claimed, this comparison implies a radius of the planet which is about 25 kilometers greater than the radius deduced from Earth-based radar data. This impasse has been resolved in favor of the smaller value by a new determination of the radius which is more direct than the method used in deriving the radar radius, and which involves concurrent ranging from Earth both to Mariner V near encounter and to the surface of Venus. It is concluded that neither spacecraft reported on atmospheric conditions near the level of the mean surface, but extrapolations of the measurements yield surface values for mid-latitudes of 100 atmospheres pressure (within a factor of 1.5) and 700 degrees K temperature (within 100 degrees ), in distinction to the Soviet values of 19+/-2 atmospheres and 544 degrees +/-10 degrees K. The higher values support radiometric and radar data on temperature and atmospheric absorption. It appears that the Soviet probe was not designed to work through such a thick atmosphere. A particularly simple (times two) ambiguity in the Venera 4 altimeter reading suggests itself, since this would bring all other data into excellent agreement and would explain the reason for the supposition that the probe reached the surface.
RESUMEN
Continuous-wave signals transmitted from Lunar Orbiter I have been received on Earth after they have been reflected from the surface of the moon. The frequency spectrum of the reflected signals is used to locate discrete, heterogeneous, scattering centers on the lunar surface. The scattering centers are probably distinguished from the surrounding terrain by a higher surface reflectivity. Continuous-wave bistatic radar could provide an important new method for the study and mapping of planetary surfaces.
RESUMEN
Three classes of models for the atmosphere of Mars differ in identifying the main ionospheric layer measured by Mariner IV as being analogous to a terrestrial F(2), F(1), or E layer. At an altitude of several hundred kilometers, the relative atmospheric mass densities for these models (in the order named) are approximately 1, 10(2), and 10(4), and the temperatures are roughly 100 degrees , 200 degrees , and 400 degrees K. Theory and observation are in best agreement for an F, s model, for which photodissociation of CO(2), and diffusive separation result in an atomic-oxygen upper atmosphere, with O(+) being the principal ion in the isothermal topside of the ionosphere. The mesopause temperature minimum would be at or below the freezing point of CO(2), and dry ice particles would be expected to form. However, an F(1) model, with molecular ions in a mixed and warmer upper atmosphere, might result if photodissociation and diffusive separation are markedly less than would be expected from analogy with Earth's upper atmosphere. The E model proposed by Chamberlain and McElroy appears very unlikely; it is not compatible with the measured ionization profile unless rather unlikely assumptions are made about the values, and changes with height, of the effective recombination coefficient and the average ion mass. Moreover our theoretical heat-budget computations for the atmospheric region probed by Mariner IV indicate markedly lower temperatures and temperature gradients than were obtained for the E model.