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Exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation is the main cause of skin cancer and may well present an occupational health and safety problem. In Denmark, skin cancer is a common disease in the general population, but detailed data on solar ultraviolet radiation exposure among outdoor workers are lacking. The aim of this study was to provide objective measurements of solar ultraviolet radiation exposure on working days and at leisure and compare levels of exposure between groups of mainly outdoor, equal-parts-outdoor-and-indoor and indoor workers. To this end, UV-B dosimeters with an aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) photodiode detector were used to measure the solar ultraviolet radiation exposure of 457 workers in the Danish summer season. Presented as semi-annual standard erythemal dose (SED) on working days, respectively, at leisure, the results are for mainly outdoor workers 214.2 SED and 64.8 SED, equal-parts-outdoor-and-indoor workers 131.4 SED and 64.8 SED, indoor workers 55.8 SED and 57.6 SED. The daily SED by month is significantly different (α = 0.05) between mainly outdoor, equal-parts-outdoor-and-indoor and indoor workers and across professional groups; some of which are exposed at very high levels that is roofers 361.8 SED. These findings substantiate that exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation is indeed an occupational health and safety problem in Denmark.

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BACKGROUND: Exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation is a well-known cause of skin cancer. This is problematic for outdoor workers. In Denmark alone, occupational skin cancer poses a significant health and safety risk for around 400,000 outdoor workers. Objective measures of solar ultraviolet radiation exposure are needed to help resolve this problem. This can be done using personal ultraviolet radiation dosimeters. METHODS: We consider technical and practical feasibility of measuring individual solar ultraviolet exposure at work and leisure in professions with different á priori temporal high-level outdoor worktime, using aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) photodiode detector based personal UV-B dosimeters. Essential technical specifications including the spectral and angular responsivity of the dosimeters are described and pre-campaign dosimeter calibration applicability is verified. The scale and conduct of dosimeter deployment and campaign in-field measurements including failures and shortcomings affecting overall data collection are presented. RESULTS: Nationwide measurements for more than three hundred and fifty workers from several different professions were collected in the summer of 2016. On average, each worker's exposure was measured for a 2-week period, which included both work and leisure. Data samples of exposure at work during a Midsummer day show differences across professions. A construction worker received high-level occupational UV exposure most of the working day, except during lunch hour, accumulating to 5.1 SED. A postal service worker was exposed intermittently around noon and in the afternoon, preceded by no exposure forenoon when packing mail, accumulating to 1.6 SED. A crane fitter was exposed only during lunch hour, accumulating to 0.7 SED. These findings are in line with our specialist knowledge as occupational physicians. CONCLUSIONS: Large-scale use of personal UV-B dosimeters for measurement of solar ultraviolet radiation exposure at work and leisure in Denmark is indeed feasible from a technical and practical viewpoint. Samples of exposure data shown support the presumption that the Danish campaign UV-B dosimeter measurement dataset can be used to sum and compare exposure between groups of professions with reliable results to be used in future analysis with clinical as well as epidemiological/questionnaire data. This was despite some dosimeter failures and shortcomings.

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The UV Index was established more than 20 years ago as a tool for sun protection and health care. Shortly after its introduction, UV Index monitoring started in several countries either by newly acquired instruments or by converting measurements from existing instruments into the UV Index. The number of stations and networks has increased over the years. Currently, 160 stations in 25 European countries deliver online values to the public via the Internet. In this paper an overview of these UV Index monitoring sites in Europe is given. The overview includes instruments as well as quality assurance and quality control procedures. Furthermore, some examples are given about how UV Index values are presented to the public. Through these efforts, 57% of the European population is supplied with high quality information, enabling them to adapt behaviour. Although health care, including skin cancer prevention, is cost-effective, a proportion of the European population still doesn't have access to UV Index information.

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UV solar spectra have been measured, using a double-grating spectroradiometer, during population studies carried out across Europe for the EC Framework 7 funded ICEPURE project on the impact of climatic and environmental factors on personal UV radiation exposure and human health. Spectral field measurements have been conducted at ambient temperatures which varied between 11.5 and 33.5 °C. This temperature variation might affect instrument performance. The effect of ambient temperature was quantified and verified, and a model for temperature correction of spectral data is presented.

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This study aimed at develop and validate the procedure for collecting exhaled breath for drug testing. Patients receiving methadone maintenance treatment were recruited for the study. Methadone levels were measured using liquid chromatography- electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry. The sampling device was based on a 47-mm C(18) filter and used under pressure to aid flow through the filter. The mouth was rinsed before sampling, and the device was constructed to protect against any saliva contamination. Methadone was present in breath samples before and after the daily intake of methadone. The mean (± SD) pre-dose level was found to be 135 ± 109 pg/min (n = 48, median 121). The exhaled methadone increased after dose intake. Saliva levels of methadone were high in comparison with exhaled breath levels. Saliva contamination was suspected in about 10% of the collected samples. Similar results were obtained using 1, 3, and 10 min sampling times. The inter- and intraindividual variability were found to be similar and in the order of 50%. Alternative sampling using XAD-2 beads and solid-phase microextraction fiber was found to be possible and enables sampling with low back pressure and with no need for pump assistance. The presented results confirm that breath testing is a new possibility for the detection of drugs of abuse.

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Within the field of toxicology exhaled breath is used as specimen only for determination of alcohol. However, it was recently discovered that when using sensitive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) technique, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and methadone are detectable in exhaled breath following intake by drug addicts. We therefore undertook to develop a method for determination of methadone in exhaled breath condensate from patients undergoing methadonemaintenance treatment. Exhaled breath condensate was collected from 14 patients after intake of the daily methadone dose. The exhaled breath condensate was collected for 10 min using an Ecoscreen instrument. After extraction of any trapped methadone from the condensate by solid-phase extraction, the final extract was analyzed by a combined LC-MS-MS method. Recovery of methadone from breath condensate in the solid-phase extraction was 104%, no significant matrix effects were observed, and the quantification using methadone-d(3) as internal standard was accurate (10% bias) and precise (coefficient of variation 6.2%). Methadone was indisputably identified by means of the MS technique in exhaled breath condensate from all 14 patients. Identification was based on monitoring two product ions in selected reaction monitoring mode with correct relative ratio (± 20%) and correct retention time. Excretion rates ranged from 23.6 to 275 pg/min. No methadone was detected in five control subjects (< 2 pg/min). This finding confirms that methadone is present in exhaled breath from patients in methadone treatment. Collection of exhaled breath specimen is likely to be complementary to other matrices presently in use in testing for drugs-of-abuse.

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At present drugs of abuse testing using exhaled breath as specimen is only possible for alcohol. However, we recently discovered that using modern liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry technique amphetamine and methamphetamine is detectable in exhaled breath following intake in drug addicts. We therefore undertook to develop a method for determination of methadone in exhaled breath from patients undergoing methadone maintenance treatment. Exhaled breath was collected from 13 patients after intake of the daily methadone dose. The compounds were trapped by filtering the air through a C18 modified silica surface. After elution of any trapped methadone the extract was analysed by a combined liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Recovery of trapped methadone from the filter surface was 96%, no significant matrix effect was observed, and the quantification using methadone-d3 as an internal standard was accurate (<10% bias) and precise (coefficient of variation 1.6-2.0%). Methadone was indisputably identified by means of the mass spectrometry technique in exhaled breath samples from all 13 patients. Identification was based on monitoring two product ions in selected reaction monitoring mode with correct relative ratio (+/-20%) and correct retention time. Excretion rates ranged from 0.39 to 78ng/min. No methadone was detected in 10 control subjects. This finding confirms that breath testing is a new possibility for drugs of abuse testing. Collection of exhaled breath specimen is likely to be more convenient and safe as compared to other matrices presently in use.

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The published UV index refers to the expected UV intensity at mid day, when the solar elevation is at its maximum. In Scandinavia, the maximum UV index is seven around midsummer. When the UV index is three, the erythema-weighted dose will be three Standard Erythema Dose (SED) in the hour with maximum intensity and nine SED in the three hours around solar noon, corresponding to 50% of the daily dose of 18 SED. A sun-sensitive Dane can tolerate two SED and an average Dane 4-5 SED before having erythema of the skin the next day. If outdoor all day without protection, they may therefore receive a sunburn already when the UV index is higher than two.

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