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Apart from chaperoning, disulfide bond formation, and downstream processing, the molecular sequence of proinsulin folding is not completely understood. Proinsulin requires proline isomerization for correct folding. Since FK506-binding protein 2 (FKBP2) is an ER-resident proline isomerase, we hypothesized that FKBP2 contributes to proinsulin folding. We found that FKBP2 co-immunoprecipitated with proinsulin and its chaperone GRP94 and that inhibition of FKBP2 expression increased proinsulin turnover with reduced intracellular proinsulin and insulin levels. This phenotype was accompanied by an increased proinsulin secretion and the formation of proinsulin high-molecular-weight complexes, a sign of proinsulin misfolding. FKBP2 knockout in pancreatic ß-cells increased apoptosis without detectable up-regulation of ER stress response genes. Interestingly, FKBP2 mRNA was overexpressed in ß-cells from pancreatic islets of T2D patients. Based on molecular modeling and an in vitro enzymatic assay, we suggest that proline at position 28 of the proinsulin B-chain (P28) is the substrate of FKBP2's isomerization activity. We propose that this isomerization step catalyzed by FKBP2 is an essential sequence required for correct proinsulin folding.

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Histone H3 Lys4 (H3K4) methylation is catalyzed by the Histone-Lysine N-Methyltransferase 2 (KMT2) protein family, and its members are required for gene expression control. In vertebrates, the KMT2s function in large multisubunit complexes known as COMPASS or COMPASS-like complexes (COMplex of Proteins ASsociated with Set1). The activity of these complexes is critical for proper development, and mutation-induced defects in their functioning have frequently been found in human cancers. Moreover, inherited or de novo mutations in KMT2 genes are among the etiological factors in neurodevelopmental disorders such as Kabuki and Kleefstra syndromes. The canonical role of KMT2s is to catalyze H3K4 methylation, which results in a permissive chromatin environment that drives gene expression. However, current findings described in this review demonstrate that these enzymes can regulate processes that are not dependent on methylation: noncatalytic functions of KMT2s include DNA damage response, cell division, and metabolic activities. Moreover, these enzymes may also methylate non-histone substrates and play a methylation-dependent function in the DNA damage response. In this review, we present an overview of the new, noncanonical activities of KMT2 complexes in a variety of cellular processes. These discoveries may have crucial implications for understanding the functions of these methyltransferases in developmental processes, disease, and epigenome-targeting therapeutic strategies in the future.

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Recent studies showed that SARS-CoV-2 can infect adult human pancreas and trigger pancreatic damage. Here, using human fetal pancreas samples and 3D differentiation of human pluripotent cells into pancreatic endocrine cells, we determined that SARS-CoV-2 receptors ACE2, TMPRSS2, and NRP1 are expressed in precursors of insulin-producing pancreatic ß-cells, rendering them permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection. We also show that SARS-CoV-2 enters and undergoes efficient replication in human multipotent pancreatic and endocrine progenitors in vitro. Moreover, we investigated mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 enters pancreatic cells, and found that ACE2 mediates the entry, while NRP1 and TMPRSS2 do not. Surprisingly, we found that in pancreatic progenitors, SARS-CoV-2 enters cells via cathepsin-dependent endocytosis, which is a different route than in respiratory tract. Therefore, pancreatic spheroids might serve as a model to study candidate drugs for endocytosis-mediated viral entry inhibition and to investigate whether SARS-CoV-2 infection may affect pancreas development, possibly causing lifelong health consequences.

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KMT2 (histone-lysine N-methyltransferase subclass 2) complexes methylate lysine 4 on the histone H3 tail at gene promoters and gene enhancers and, thus, control the process of gene transcription. These complexes not only play an essential role in normal development but have also been described as involved in the aberrant growth of tissues. KMT2 mutations resulting from the rearrangements of the KMT2A (MLL1) gene at 11q23 are associated with pediatric mixed-lineage leukemias, and recent studies demonstrate that KMT2 genes are frequently mutated in many types of human cancers. Moreover, other components of the KMT2 complexes have been reported to contribute to oncogenesis. This review summarizes the recent advances in our knowledge of the role of KMT2 complexes in cell transformation. In addition, it discusses the therapeutic targeting of different components of the KMT2 complexes.

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Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system stimulates growth, proliferation, and regulates differentiation of cells in a tissue-specific manner. It is composed of two insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1 and IGF-2), six insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins (IGFBPs), and two insulin-like growth factor receptors (IGF-1R and IGF-2R). IGF actions take place mostly through the activation of the plasma membrane-bound IGF-Rs by the circulating ligands (IGFs) released from the IGFBPs that stabilize their levels in the serum. This review focuses on the IGF-1 part of the system. The IGF-1 gene, which is expressed mainly in the liver as well as in other tissues, comprises six alternatively spliced exons that code for three protein isoforms (pro-IGF-1A, pro-IGF-1B, and pro-IGF-1C), which are processed to mature IGF-1 and E-peptides. The IGF-1R undergoes autophosphorylation, resulting in a signaling cascade involving numerous cytoplasmic proteins such as AKT and MAPKs, which regulate the expression of target genes. However, a more complex picture of the axis has recently emerged with all its components being translocated to the nuclear compartment. IGF-1R takes part in the regulation of gene expression by forming transcription complexes, modifying the activity of chromatin remodeling proteins, and participating in DNA damage tolerance mechanisms. Four IGFBPs contain a nuclear localization signal (NLS), which targets them to the nucleus, where they regulate gene expression (IGFBP-2, IGFBP-3, IGFBP-5, IGFBP-6) and DNA damage repair (IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-6). Last but not least, the IGF-1B isoform has been reported to be localized in the nuclear compartment. However, no specific molecular actions have been assigned to the nuclear pro-IGF-1B or its derivative EB peptide. Therefore, further studies are needed to shed light on their nuclear activity. These recently uncovered nuclear actions of different components of the IGF-1 axis are relevant in cancer cell biology and are discussed in this review.

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Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are essential for local skeletal muscle growth and organismal physiology, but these actions are entwined with glucose homeostasis through convergence with insulin signaling. The objective of this work was to determine whether the effects of IGF-I on growth and metabolism could be separated. We generated muscle-specific IGF-I-deficient (MID) mice that afford inducible deletion of Igf1 at any age. After Igf1 deletion at birth or in young adult mice, evaluations of muscle physiology and glucose homeostasis were performed up to 16 wk of age. MID mice generated at birth had lower muscle and circulating IGF-I, decreased muscle and body mass, and impaired muscle force production. Eight-wk-old male MID had heightened insulin levels with trends of elevated fasting glucose. This phenotype progressed to impaired glucose handling and increased fat deposition without significant muscle mass loss at 16 wk of age. The same phenotype emerged in 16-wk-old MID mice induced at 12 wk of age, compounded with heightened muscle fatigability and exercise intolerance. We assert that muscle IGF-I independently modulates anabolism and metabolism in an age-dependent manner, thus positioning muscle IGF-I maintenance to be critical for both muscle growth and metabolic homeostasis.-Vassilakos, G., Lei, H., Yang, Y., Puglise, J., Matheny, M., Durzynska, J., Ozery, M., Bennett, K., Spradlin, R., Bonanno, H., Park, S., Ahima, R. S., Barton, E. R. Deletion of muscle IGF-I transiently impairs growth and progressively disrupts glucose homeostasis in male mice.

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Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs) are double-stranded DNA viruses, that infect epithelial cells and are etiologically involved in the development of human cancer. Today, over 200 types of human papillomaviruses are known. They are divided into low-risk and high-risk HPVs depending on their potential to induce carcinogenesis, driven by two major viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7. By interacting with cellular partners, these proteins are involved in interdependent viral and cell cycles in stratified differentiating epithelium, and concomitantly induce epigenetic changes in infected cells and those undergoing malignant transformation. E6 and E7 oncoproteins interact with and/or modulate expression of many proteins involved in epigenetic regulation, including DNA methyltransferases, histone-modifying enzymes and subunits of chromatin remodeling complexes, thereby influencing host cell transcription program. Furthermore, HPV oncoproteins modulate expression of cellular micro RNAs. Most of these epigenetic actions in a complex dynamic interplay participate in the maintenance of persistent infection, cell transformation, and development of invasive cancer by a considerable deregulation of tumor suppressor and oncogenes. In this study, we have undertaken to discuss a number of studies concerning epigenetic regulations in HPV-dependent cells and to focus on those that have biological relevance to cancer progression.

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Human papillomaviruses (HPV) infect and replicate in stratified epithelium at cutaneous and mucosal surfaces. The proliferation and maintenance of keratinocytes, the cells which make up this epithelium, are controlled by a number of growth factor receptors such as the keratinocyte growth factor receptor (KGFR, also called fibroblast growth factor receptor 2b (FGFR2b)), the epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the insulin-like growth factor receptors 1 and 2 (IGF1R and IGF2R). In this review, we will delineate the mutation, gene transcription, translation and processing of the IGF axis within HPV associated cancers. The IGFs are key for developmental and postnatal growth of almost all tissues; we explore whether this crucial axis has been hijacked by HPV.

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Many attempts have been made to define nature of viruses and to uncover their origin. Our aim within this work was to show that there are different perceptions of viruses and many concepts to explain their emergence: the virus-first concept (also called co-evolution), the escape and the reduction theories. Moreover, a relatively new concept of polyphyletic virus origin called "three RNA cells, three DNA viruses" proposed by Forterre is described herein. In this paper, not only is each thesis supported by a body of evidence but also counter-argued in the light of various findings to give more insightful considerations to the readers. As the origin of viruses and that of living cells are most probably interdependent, we decided to reveal ideas concerning nature of cellular last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Furthermore, we discuss monophyletic ancestry of cellular domains and their relationships at the molecular level of membrane lipids and replication strategies of these three types of cells. In this review, we also present the emergence of DNA viruses requiring an evolutionary transition from RNA to DNA and recently discovered giant DNA viruses possibly involved in eukaryogenesis. In the course of evolution viruses emerged many times. They have always played a key role through horizontal gene transfer in evolutionary events and in formation of the tree of life or netlike routes of evolution providing a great deal of genetic diversity. In our opinion, future findings are crucial to better understand past relations between viruses and cells and the origin of both.

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Efficient delivery of heterologous molecules for treatment of cells is a great challenge in modern medicine and pharmacology. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) may improve efficient delivery of a wide range of macromolecular cargos, including plasmid DNA, small interfering RNA, drugs, nanoparticulate pharmaceutical carriers, and anticancer drugs. In this paper, we present the history of CPPs' discovery with special attention drawn to sequences of viral origin. We also describe different CPP families with regard to their physicochemical properties and numerous mechanisms of CPP cell uptake by direct penetration and endocytotic pathways. A detailed description is focused on formation of carrier-cargo complexes, which are needed for practical use of CPPs in medicine and biotechnology. Examples of successful application of CPPs in treatment of human diseases are also presented, including decreased tumor growth and induction of cancer cell death. Finally, we review modern design approaches to novel CPPs and prediction of their activity. To sum up, the current review presents a thorough and up-to-date knowledge of CPPs and may be a valuable source of information for researchers in pharmacology designing new therapeutic agents.

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The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis promotes the growth of cells, tissues and organs. IGF-1 is mainly produced in the liver but is also secreted from local tissues. In the circulation, IGF-1 is bound to insulin-like binding proteins (IGFBPs), and when released it activates the insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF-1R). The signal is further transmitted by intracellular signaling pathways leading to gene expression that regulates, among others, cell proliferation and survival. This review presents the IGF axis in the context of cell transformation and cancer development. Aspects involving IGF-1 deficiency and protection from cancer are also briefly described. Furthermore, human papillomaviruses (HPVs) interplaying with IGF axis components in cervical cancer development are described. These small dsDNA viruses are divided into low-risk and high-risk HPVs with regard to the potency of their oncogenic actions; they mainly infect epithelial or mucosal cells. Special attention is drawn to expression of two major HPV oncogenes (E6 and E7) initiating and maintaining cervical carcinogenesis, which is a multistep and multifactorial process; therefore, involvement of additional factors such as mitochondrial DNA changes, sex hormones, retinoic and folic acids are also discussed. Finally, IGF axis components and HPV oncogenes as targets in anticancer treatment are presented which include IGF-1R downregulation, RNA interference and anti-HPV therapeutic vaccines. The review concludes that despite an enormous advancement in research on IGF and HPV-related cancers, more molecular studies and clinical trials are needed before commercialized therapies are widely available for oncology patients.

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The human Igf-1 gene not only produces insulin­like growth factor-I (IGF-I), but also different carboxy­terminal extensions, known as E peptides, through alternative splicing. We and others have shown that human Eb peptide (hEb) derived from Igf-1 has intrinsic biological activity and is localized to nuclei of transfected cells. Since hEb actions can complement the activity of IGF-I itself, the aim of the present study was to compare IGF-I isoforms at the endogenous protein and transcript level in cancer cell lines, including HeLa, U2OS, HepG2 and K562 cells. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT­PCR) using Igf-1 isoform specific primers was performed to determine expression patterns, using ß-actin as a reference gene. The overall relative Igf-1 transcript level was different across the cell lines, with ~80-fold higher expression in K562 (130.2±31.2) than in U2OS cells (1.7±1.1). The relative copy number of Igf-1b was the highest in HepG2 (69.9±28.6) and K562 cells (28.3±6.7), whereas the relative copy numbers of Igf-1a and Igf-1c were significantly higher in K562 cells compared to all other cell lines. Immunoblotting using total cell lysates, cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions were carried out to determine the level and distribution of IGF-I proteins. K562 cells exhibited the highest level of hEb in total cell lysates and nuclear fractions and no cell lines displayed hEb in the cytoplasmic fractions. In contrast, IGF-IA was the highest in HeLa cells and was enriched only in the cytoplasmic fraction. Since relatively low IGF-1A transcript level but relatively high pro­IGF-1A protein level is plausible, we hypothesized that these transcripts could be processed with higher efficiency and/or the protein product may be stabilized by viral HPV oncogenes in HeLa cells. We assert that while it is important to analyze Igf-1 transcript level, it may be more relevant to determine the IGF isoforms at the protein level.

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This article is a follow-up to our previous molecular epidemiology studies on the DNA damage in children from the Upper Silesia region of Poland. It is expected that metabolic and DNA repair gene polymorphisms may modulate individual susceptibility to environmental exposure. In this study, we investigate the association between polymorphisms of metabolising (CYP2D, EPHX1, GSTM1, GSTP1, GSTT1, NAT2) and DNA repair (XPD, XRCC1, XRCC3) genes and selected biomarkers of exposure and effect such as levels of 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) and urinary mutagenicity, aromatic DNA adducts, sister chromatid exchange (SCE) and micronuclei (MN) in 74 children. Both 1-OHP concentration and urinary mutagenicity tested by TA98+S9 were significantly higher in individuals with EPHX1 (exon 4) Arg/Arg genotype than in individuals with other genotype. The EPHX1 (exon 3) significantly affected urinary mutagenicity tested with strain YG1024+S9. The urinary mutagenicity in individuals with Tyr/Tyr homozygotes was lower than in individuals with Tyr/His and His/His (1057±685 vs. 1432±1003 revertants/mol creatinine). XRCC3 Met/Met genotype was associated with significantly higher levels of 1-OHP in urine compared with only The/Met genotype. The PAH-DNA adduct levels in the subgroup with GSTM1 null genotype was 2-fold higher than in individuals with GSTM1 active (7.06±5.12 vs. 13.14±9.81 adduct/10(8) nucleotides). The mean level of aromatic DNA adducts in children with deletion of the GSTT1 gene was significantly higher compared with individuals with that gene present (8.03±6.23 vs. 14.66±10.70 adduct/10(8) nucleotides). Also the carriers of the XPD Lys/Lys genotype showed higher levels of DNA adducts than heterozygotes (13.16±9.70 vs. 6.81±5.86 adducts/10(8) nucleotides). Children carrying the XRCC3-241 Met/Met genotype exhibited a higher number of SCE in peripheral blood lymphocytes than carriers of Thr/Met allele (8.15±0.86 vs. 7.62±0.79 SCE/cell). It was also observed that children with the GSTP1 slow conjugator had significantly elevated MN in peripheral blood lymphocytes compared with fast conjugator (4.23±3.49 vs. 6.56±5.00 MN/1000 cells).

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IGF-I is a key regulator of muscle development and growth. The pre-pro-peptide produced by the Igf1gene undergoes several posttranslational processing steps to result in a secreted mature protein, which is thought to be the obligate ligand for the IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR). The goals of this study were to determine what forms of IGF-I exist in skeletal muscle, and whether the mature IGF-I protein was the only form able to activate the IGF-IR. We measured the proportion of IGF-I species in murine skeletal muscle and found that the predominant forms were nonglycosylated pro-IGF-I and glycosylated pro-IGF-I, which retained the C-terminal E peptide extension, instead of mature IGF-I. These forms were validated using samples subjected to viral expression of IGF-I combined with furin and glycosidase digestion. To determine whether the larger molecular weight IGF-I forms were also ligands for the IGF-IR, we generated each specific form through transient transfection of 3T3 cells and used the enriched media to perform kinase receptor activation assays. Compared with mature IGF-I, nonglycosylated pro-IGF-I had similar ability to activate the IGF-IR, whereas glycosylation of pro-IGF-I significantly reduced receptor activation. Thus, it is important to understand not only the quantity, but also the proportion of IGF-I forms produced, to evaluate the true biological activity of this growth factor.

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INTRODUCTION: Growth disorders in children are multifactor, complex processes with often unknown etiology. The insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) is one of the proteins participating in the transfer of growth signals, which are responsible in certain cases for the etiology of a growth disorder. AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of the study was an analysis of the coding sequence of the extracellular and intracellular domains of IGF-IR responsible for ligand binding (IGF-I) and kinase activity in the DNA of children with growth disorders, who have normal or slightly decreased levels of plasma IGF-I. MATERIAL AND METHODS: DNA isolated from the peripheral blood of 50 short-statured children was used as study material. DNA fragments of IGF-IR obtained as a result of PCR amplification were analyzed using single stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) and sequencing. RESULTS: We did not observe any changes in the IGF-IR sequences, thus it can be excluded as a factor responsible for growth disorders. CONCLUSIONS: IGF-I receptor sequence changes are not the cause of growth disorders in the study group of children. To find the cause of growth disorders in the study group other proteins from somatotropic axis and/or signaling pathways should be studied in the future.

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UNLABELLED: Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are a very complex group of pathogenic viruses, with more than 80 types, causing human infection. Given the prevalence of HPV infection and its relationship with the development of cervical and many other cancers, HPV vaccine development has been a major public health initiative worldwide in the last decade. The aim of the presented study was to identify HPV DNA by MY-PCR in 4,150 school children and adolescents, aged 10-18 years in the Wielkopolska region, Poland. All individuals were asked to fill in extensive questionnaires; further normal, oral squamous cells were collected from each pupil. Cellular DNA was isolated and used as a MY-PCR template to estimate the incidence of HPV-active infection. Forty five subjects (1.08% of the sample) were carriers of oropharyngeal HPVs. HPV status and variables of interest, such as age, gender, socioeconomical status, and risk factors (smoking and sexual intercourse history, alcohol consumption) were not correlated. The presence of HPVs in the oral cavity was cumulated in several schools of the region. DNA sequencing of MY-PCR products revealed only four HPV genotypes. The most frequent genotype was HPV11 (38/45 HPV-positive cases), while other more rare genotypes were HPV6 (3/45), HPV12 (3/45), and HPV57 (1/45). CONCLUSION: Our findings presented herein, reveal a relatively low prevalance of oropharyngeal HPVs in Polish adolescents and fill an important gap in the knowledge of oral HPV infections of children above 10 years and adolescents.

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Growth deficiency is one of the most frequent causes of referral to Endocrinology Outpatient Clinic. IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1) deficiency is one of the rarest causes of short stature. In 2009 in Poland a therapeutic programme was set up for children with severe primary IGF-1 deficiency. The authors present the data of three first polish patients qualified for the rhIGF-1 (recombinant human insulin-like growth factor 1) - mecasermin. The authors conclude that the treatment with rhIGF-1 significantly improves growth velocity in patients with IGF-1 deficiency. During two years of mecasermin treatment no serious side effects were noted.

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The aim of the study was to develop a multiplex PCR (mPCR) for a rapid and simultaneous detection of herpes simplex 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex 2 (HSV-2), and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) DNA in squamous oral cells obtained from adolescents. Accuracy of the method was tested in a group of 513 adolescents, almost 11% of subjects were positive for infection with herpes viruses. Correlations with gender, age, and place of residence were sought. A similar incidence of HSV-2 and HCMV was found (4.3% and 5.4%, respectively) and the incidence of HSV-1 was the lowest (1%) in the study group. Conversely to HSV-2, HCMV was detected mostly in the youngest individuals. The same occurrence of all viruses was observed in boys and girls. The mPCR method described is suggested as a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of active herpes infections.

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The importance of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in coronary artery disease (CAD) due to wide range of its biological effects and its therapeutic potential, has already been described. Our aim was to evaluate possible influence of IGF-1 serum level changes on coronary atherosclerosis. In case of existence of such association our further aim was to verify and explain this phenomenon by examination of promoter P1 of IGF-1gene and receptor gene for IGF-1. The study was performed in 101 consecutive patients undergo for routine coronary angiography. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of coronary atherosclerosis was performed respectively by estimation of the number of culprit lesions in coronary arteries and by Gensini score calculation. IGF-1, IGFBP3 and plasma lipoproteins were measured in all patients. In addition, we evaluated DNA from 101 patients, isolated from blood cells, which was amplified by using PCR with sophisticated primers for P1 promoter of IGF-1 gene and IGF-1 receptor gene, then analyzed utilizing SSCP technique and automatically sequenced. We observed significant increase of serum IGF-1 levels in patients with "3 vessel disease" and with high score in Gensini scale when compared to those without any narrowing lesions in coronary arteries and 0 Gensini score (in group with 3 vessel disease 215.0 ± 71.3 versuss 176.7 ± 34.2 ng/ml p = 0.04 and with high Gensini score 231.4 ± 59.3 versus 181.0 ± 37.8 ng/ml p = 0.01).We found different genotypes for five P1 promoter polymorphisms of IGF-1 gene (RS35767, RS5742612, RS228837, RS11829693, RS17879774). There were no significant associations between the observed single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and coronary atherosclerosis nor with levels of circulating IGF-1. We found no structural polymorphism in receptor gene for IGF-1 nor in its extracellular domain(exon 2-4) nor in internal domain (exon 16-21). The effect of increased IGF-1 serum level in our study was probably independent from structural polymorphism in promoter P1 for IGF-1 or in receptor gene for IGF-1.

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