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ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Sri Lanka has a great diversity of snake species. In this relation, over 40,000 cases of snakebite accidents are reported annually from different agro-ecological regions of the country. Since more than 95% of victims rely on traditional treatments, there is an urgent necessity to improve the system. Traditional knowledge on snakebite treatments has been passed on from generation to generation within families. Unfortunately, there has been a limited update of information on pertinent issues related to this subject. In the present study we conducted a comprehensive survey on the types of medicinal plant materials, including the specific plant parts that are available for this purpose. In addition, various treatment types, frequency index, heavily used and rare materials, family wise distribution, challenges faced by traditional practitioners and future prospects were also explored. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present survey covered two provinces with a high population of traditional practitioners for snakebites treatment in Sri Lanka.Information was gathered from a total of seventy-four (74) traditional practitioners from the Sabaragamuwa and Western provinces. A questionnaire was prepared and pre-tested by 10-15 respondents prior to the survey. Actual data were gathered through face-to-face interviews. Collected data were tabulated and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 341 different plant species belonging to 99 families were documented. The highest number of plants was reported from the family Fabaceae (32 species). This was followed by Malvaceae (16 species), Asteraceae (15 species), Rutaceae (13 species Apocyanaceae (14 species), Lamiaceae (11 species), Poaceae, Euphorbaceae and Phyllanthaceae (10 species per each) respectively. Different parts of the plant such as leaves (53.67%), barks (26.10%), entire plant (14.08%), roots (10.26%), bulbs (8.80%), seeds (7.62%), fruits (6.45%), buds (5.87%), flowers (3.23%) stems (2.93%) and latex (2.05%) were used for the preparation of nine different types of formulae. These formulae include oral administration (172 plant species), external bandaging (167 plant species), oiling for external application (34 plant species), steaming (33 plant species), creaming for wounds (6 plant species), nasal treatments (40 plant species), head treatments (23 plant species), treatment for eyes (4 plant species) and washing of wounds (9 plant species). Moreover, plants used for the different snake types, constraints faced by traditional practitioners, and their constructive suggestions were also discussed. CONCLUSION: A pioneering attempt was made to exploit local knowledge on snakebite treatments for the conservation of valued medicinal plants and to promote primary health care needs in Sabaragamuwa and Western provinces in Sri Lanka. The documented plants together with the traditional knowledge could be effectively utilized for the isolation and characterization of antivenom for different snake species.

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Copper oxide nanoparticle inks sintered and reduced by intense pulsed light (IPL) are an inexpensive means to produce conductive patterns on a number of substrates. However, the oxidation and diffusion characteristics of copper are issues that must be resolved before it can be considered as a viable solution. Nickel can provide a degree of oxidation protection and act as a barrier for the diffusion of copper. In the present study we have for the first time synthesized copper oxide with an encapsulating nickel oxide nanostructure using a solution phase synthesis process in the presence of a surfactant at room temperature. The room temperature process enables us to easily prevent the formation of alloys at the copper-nickel interface. The synthesis results in a simple technique (easily commercializable, tested at a 10 g scale) with highly controllable layer thicknesses on a 20 nm copper oxide nanoparticle. These Cu(2)O@NiO dispersions were then directly deposited onto substrates and sintered/reduced using an IPL source. The sintering technique produces a highly conductive film with very short processing times. Films have been deposited onto silicon, and the copper-nickel structure has shown a lower copper diffusion. The nanostructures and resulting films were characterized using electron and x-ray spectroscopy, and the films' resistivity was measured.

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ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Sri Lanka has rich traditional systems of medicine, which cater to 60-70% of the rural population׳s primary health care needs. However, development of existing systems has been hindered by the unavailability of up-to-date information on medicinal materials and other related issues. For streamlining purposes, we investigated the present-day scenario of country׳s medicinal plant industry by gathering up-to-date information on the types of raw materials required, their aggregate quantities, heavily used and rare materials, family wise distribution, challenges faced by stakeholders as well as other pertinent issues. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present survey covered the selected government Ayurveda hospitals, traditional and Ayurveda practitioners, large and small-scale herbal drug and cosmetic manufactures, importers, collectors and Ayurveda commissioners throughout the country. A systematic questionnaire was distributed and face-to-face interviews were conducted. Collected data were tabulated and analyzed. RESULTS: A diverse range of medicinal materials, including 290 species (64.73%) from dried plants, 59 (13.17%) from fresh plants, 69 (15.40%) from minerals, 18 (4.02%) from animal sources and 12 (2.68%) from other sources were recorded. A total of 302 plant species belonging to 95 families, dominated by Leguminosae family, was listed. Out of these, 46 species belonging to 35 families were used intensively. A large portion of herbal materials was of completely local origin (71.13%) while 26% were imported and the rest (2.87%) can be obtained by both routes. Leaves were the most highly used part of the plant (22.2%). High price, poor quality, insufficient or totally absence of continuous supply and adulteration were the main constraints faced by the stakeholders. The unavailability of systematic cultivation and processing protocols, incorrect identification, and lack of proper quality control methodologies were identified as major challenges of the industry. CONCLUSION: The present study revealed a currently bleak scenario of the medicinal material industry in Sri Lanka. The results clearly demonstrated the need to implement a national strategy to address the major challenges faced by different stakeholders. Information generated through this study could be effectively incorporated for the formulation of a sustainable development strategy for this industry.

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Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. (Family: Solanaceae) is a therapeutically important medicinal plant in traditional and Ayurveda systems of medicine in Sri Lanka. Witheferin A, is a potential anticancer compound found in W. somnifera. In the present study, attempts have been made to compare witheferin A content, in different parts of (root, stem, bark, leaf) two varieties of (LC1 and FR1) W. somnifera grown in same soil and climatic conditions. Ground sample (1g) of leaves, bark, stem and roots of two W. somnifera varieties were extracted with CHCl3 three times. Thin Layer Chromatographic analysis (TLC) of withaferin A in both plant extracts were performed on pre-coated Silica gel 60 GF254 plates in hexane: ethyl acetate: methanol (2: 14: 1) mobile phase. Densitometer scanning was performed at lambda(max) = 215 nm. HPLC of W. somnifera extracts was performed using Kromasil C18 reverse phase column. Both varieties of W. somnifera differed in withaferin A. After visualizing TLC plates with vanillin-sulphuric acid leaf and bark extracts of both varieties showed high intensity purple colour spots (R(f) 0.14) than in stem and roots. The highest amount of withaferin A (3812 ppm) was observed in leaves of variety LC1 while the lowest amount was observed in roots of variety FR1 (5 ppm). According to the results it could be concluded that content of Witheferin A was vary leaf > bark > stem > roots in both varieties. Therefore, there is a high potential of incorporation of leaves and bark of W. somnifera for the preparation of Ayurveda drug leading to anticancer activity instead of roots.

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