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INTRODUCTION: Data are sparse about the potential health risks of chronic low-dose contamination of humans by uranium (natural or anthropogenic) in drinking water. Previous studies report some molecular imbalances but no clinical signs due to uranium intake. OBJECTIVES: In a proof-of-principle study, we reported that metabolomics is an appropriate method for addressing this chronic low-dose exposure in a rat model (uranium dose: 40 mg L-1; duration: 9 months, n = 10). In the present study, our aim was to investigate the dose-effect pattern and identify additional potential biomarkers in urine samples. METHODS: Compared to our previous protocol, we doubled the number of rats per group (n = 20), added additional sampling time points (3 and 6 months) and included several lower doses of natural uranium (doses used: 40, 1.5, 0.15 and 0.015 mg L-1). LC-MS metabolomics was performed on urine samples and statistical analyses were made with SIMCA-P+ and R packages. RESULTS: The data confirmed our previous results and showed that discrimination was both dose and time related. Uranium exposure was revealed in rats contaminated for 9 months at a dose as low as 0.15 mg L-1. Eleven features, including the confidently identified N1-methylnicotinamide, N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide and 4-hydroxyphenylacetylglycine, discriminated control from contaminated rats with a specificity and a sensitivity ranging from 83 to 96 %, when combined into a composite score. CONCLUSION: These findings show promise for the elucidation of underlying radiotoxicologic mechanisms and the design of a diagnostic test to assess exposure in urine, in a dose range experimentally estimated to be above a threshold between 0.015 and 0.15 mg L-1.

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Strontium 90 ((90)Sr) remains in the environment long after a major nuclear disaster occurs. As a result, populations living on contaminated land are potentially exposed to daily ingesting of low quantities of (90)Sr. The potential long-term health effects of such chronic contamination are unknown. In this study, we used a mouse model to evaluate the effects of (90)Sr ingestion on the immune system, the animals were chronically exposed to (90)Sr in drinking water at a concentration of 20 kBq/l, for a daily ingestion of 80-100 Bq/day. This resulted in a reduced number of CD19(+) B lymphocytes in the bone marrow and spleen in steady-state conditions. In contrast, the results from a vaccine experiment performed as a functional test of the immune system showed that in response to T-dependent antigens, there was a reduction in IgG specific to tetanus toxin (TT), a balanced Th1/Th2 response inducer antigen, but not to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), a strong Th2 response inducer antigen. This was accompanied by a reduction in Th1 cells in the spleen, consistent with the observed reduction in specific IgG concentration. The precise mechanisms by which (90)Sr acts on the immune system remain to be elucidated. However, our results suggest that (90)Sr ingestion may be responsible for some of the reported effects of internal contamination on the immune system in civilian populations exposed to the Chernobyl fallout.

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In view of the known sensitivity of the developing central nervous system to pollutants, we sought to assess the effects of exposure to uranium (U) - a heavy metal naturally present in the environment - on the behavior of young rats and the impact of oxidative stress on their hippocampus. Pups drank U (in the form of uranyl nitrate) at doses of 10 or 40 mg.L(-1) for 10 weeks from birth. Control rats drank mineral water. Locomotor activity in an open field and practice effects on a rotarod device decreased in rats exposed to 10 mg.L(-1) (respectively, -19.4% and -51.4%) or 40 mg.L(-1) (respectively, -19.3% and -55.9%) in compared with control rats. Anxiety (+37%) and depressive-like behavior (-50.8%) were altered by U exposure only at 40 mg.L(-1). Lipid peroxidation (+35%) and protein carbonyl concentration (+137%) increased significantly after exposure to U at 40 mg.L(-1). A significant increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD, +122.5%) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx, +13.6%) activities was also observed in the hippocampus of rats exposed to 40 mg.L(-1). These results demonstrate that exposure to U since birth alters some behaviors and modifies antioxidant status.

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Uranium level in drinking water is usually in the range of microgram-per-liter, but this value may be as much as 100 to 1000 times higher in some areas, which may raise question about the health consequences for human populations living in these areas. Our purpose was to improve knowledge of chemical effects of uranium following chronic ingestion. Experiments were performed on rats contaminated for 9 months via drinking water containing depleted uranium (0.2, 2, 5, 10, 20, 40, or 120 mg/L). Blood biochemical and hematological indicators were measured and several different types of investigations (molecular, functional, and structural) were conducted in organs (intestine, liver, kidneys, hematopoietic cells, and brain). The specific sensitivity of the organs to uranium was deduced from nondeleterious biological effects, with the following thresholds (in mg/L): 0.2 for brain, >2 for liver, >10 for kidneys, and >20 for intestine, indicating a NOAEL (No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level) threshold for uranium superior to 120 m g/L. Based on the chemical uranium toxicity, the tolerable daily intake calculation yields a guideline value for humans of 1350 µg/L. This value was higher than the WHO value of 30 µg/L, indicating that this WHO guideline for uranium content in drinking water is very protective and might be reconsidered.

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AIMS: Uranium olfactory uptake after intranasal exposure raises some concerns for people potentially exposed to airborne radionuclide contamination as the brain could be a direct target for these contaminants. A model of nasal instillation was used to elucidate the transport mechanisms of uranium to the brain and to map its localization. METHODS: Increasing concentrations of depleted uranium containing solutions were instilled in the nasal cavity of adult male rats. Uranium concentrations were measured using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) 4 h after instillation. Olfactory neuroepithelium cytoarchitecture was studied using immunohistochemistry experiments. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) microscopy was performed to localize uranium in the olfactory system. RESULTS: ICP-MS analyses showed a frontal accumulation of uranium in the olfactory bulbs associated with a smaller increase in more caudal brain regions (frontal cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum). Uranium concentrations in the olfactory bulbs do not reach a saturation point. Olfactory nerve bundle integrity is not affected by uranium as revealed by immunohistochemistry. SIMS microscopy allowed us to show that uranium localization is mainly restricted to the olfactory neuroepithelium and around olfactory nerve bundles. It is subsequently detected in the olfactory nerve layer of the olfactory bulb. DISCUSSION: These results suggest the existence of a transcellular passage from the mucosa to the perineural space around axon bundles. Uranium bypasses the blood brain barrier and is conveyed to the brain via the cerebrospinal fluid along the olfactory nerve. Future studies might need to integrate this new contamination route to assess uranium neurotoxicity after nasal exposure.

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Enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics (XME) are well recognized in experimental models as representative indicators of organ detoxification functions and of exposure to toxicants. As several in vivo studies have shown, uranium can alter XME in the rat liver or kidneys after either acute or chronic exposure. To determine how length or level of exposure affects these changes in XME, we continued our investigation of chronic rat exposure to depleted uranium (DU, uranyl nitrate). The first study examined the effect of duration (1-18 months) of chronic exposure to DU, the second evaluated dose dependence, from a level close to that found in the environment near mining sites (0.2 mg/L) to a supra-environmental dose (120 mg/L, 10 times the highest level naturally found in the environment), and the third was an in vitro assessment of whether DU exposure directly affects XME and, in particular, CYP3A. The experimental in vivo models used here demonstrated that CYP3A is the enzyme modified to the greatest extent: high gene expression changed after 6 and 9 months. The most substantial effects were observed in the liver of rats after 9 months of exposure to 120 mg/L of DU: CYP3A gene and protein expression and enzyme activity all decreased by more than 40 %. Nonetheless, no direct effect of DU by itself was observed after in vitro exposure of rat microsomal preparations, HepG2 cells, or human primary hepatocytes. Overall, these results probably indicate the occurrence of regulatory or adaptive mechanisms that could explain the indirect effect observed in vivo after chronic exposure.

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Because uranium is a natural element present in the earth's crust, the population may be chronically exposed to low doses of it through drinking water. Additionally, the military and civil uses of uranium can also lead to environmental dispersion that can result in high or low doses of acute or chronic exposure. Recent experimental data suggest this might lead to relatively innocuous biological reactions. The aim of this study was to assess the biological changes in rats caused by ingestion of natural uranium in drinking water with a mean daily intake of 2.7 mg/kg for 9 months and to identify potential biomarkers related to such a contamination. Subsequently, we observed no pathology and standard clinical tests were unable to distinguish between treated and untreated animals. Conversely, LC-MS metabolomics identified urine as an appropriate biofluid for discriminating the experimental groups. Of the 1,376 features detected in urine, the most discriminant were metabolites involved in tryptophan, nicotinate, and nicotinamide metabolic pathways. In particular, N-methylnicotinamide, which was found at a level seven times higher in untreated than in contaminated rats, had the greatest discriminating power. These novel results establish a proof of principle for using metabolomics to address chronic low-dose uranium contamination. They open interesting perspectives for understanding the underlying biological mechanisms and designing a diagnostic test of exposure.

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The central nervous system (CNS) is known to be sensitive to pollutants during its development. Uranium (U) is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the environment as a component of the earth's crust, and populations may therefore be chronically exposed to U through drinking water and food. Previous studies have shown that the CNS is a target of U in rats exposed in adulthood. We assessed the effects of U on behavior and cholinergic system of rats exposed from birth for 10 weeks at 10 mg.L⁻¹ or 40 mg.L⁻¹. For behavioral analysis, the sleep/wake cycle (recorded by telemetry), the object recognition memory and the spatial working memory (Y-maze) were evaluated. Acetylcholine (ACh) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) levels were evaluated in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus. At 40 mg.L⁻¹, U exposure impaired object recognition memory (-20%), but neither spatial working memory nor the sleep/wake cycle was impaired. A significant decrease was observed in both the ACh concentration (-14%) and AChE activity (-14%) in the entorhinal cortex, but not in the hippocampus. Any significant effect on behaviour and cholinergic system was observed at 10 mg U.L⁻¹. These results demonstrate that early exposure to U during postnatal life induces a structure cerebral-dependant cholinergic response and modifies such memory process in rats. This exposure to U early in life could have potential delayed effects in adulthood.

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Uranium nanoparticles (<100 nm) can be released into the atmosphere during industrial stages of the nuclear fuel cycle and during remediation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. Explosions and fires in nuclear reactors and the use of ammunition containing depleted uranium can also produce such aerosols. The risk of accidental inhalation of uranium nanoparticles by nuclear workers, military personnel or civilian populations must therefore be taken into account. In order to address this issue, the absorption rate of inhaled uranium nanoparticles needs to be characterised experimentally. For this purpose, rats were exposed to an aerosol containing 107 particles of uranium per cm³ (CMD=38 nm) for 1h in a nose-only inhalation exposure system. Uranium concentrations deposited in the respiratory tract, blood, brain, skeleton and kidneys were determined by ICP-MS. Twenty-seven percent of the inhaled mass of uranium nanoparticles was deposited in the respiratory tract. One-fifth of UO2 nanoparticles were rapidly cleared from lung (T(½)=2.4 h) and translocated to extrathoracic organs. However, the majority of the particles were cleared slowly (T(½)=141.5 d). Future long-term experimental studies concerning uranium nanoparticles should focus on the potential lung toxicity of the large fraction of particles cleared slowly from the respiratory tract after inhalation exposure.

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BACKGROUND: Bone is the main site of uranium accumulation after long term contamination. Several studies describe that at high dose of exposure, uranium impairs bone growth. Nevertheless little is known about the effects of chronic exposure at low doses of this radionuclide on bone, especially when ingested via drinking water, which is considered as the main exposure pathway for the public. METHODS: In this study, male rats were exposed to natural uranium in drinking water for a 9 month period, either at 40 mg l(-1) starting just after birth (post-natal model) or starting at 3 months of age (adult model). RESULTS: In the post-natal model at 40 mg l(-1), three-dimensional microtomography analysis showed that NU decreased significantly the cortical bone diameter in NU-contaminated rats. Bone histomorphometry analysis also showed a significant increase of the osteoid thickness in trabecular bone of the femur of NU-contaminated rats. In addition, mRNA expression in trabecular bone of genes involved in osteoblast differentiation (OSX, BMP2, RUNX2), bone remodeling (TRAP, OCN), bone mineralization (BSP, OPN, DMP1), calcium transport (TRPV5) as well as vitamin D receptor (VDR) was significantly decreased in this model. In contrast, in the adult model, no morphometric, cellular and molecular changes were observed in bone. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: This study showed for the first time that NU at this concentration has no detectable effect in adult bone while it significantly affects growing bone, which thus appears more sensitive to low dose contamination by this radionuclide.

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Uranium presents numerous industrial and military uses and one of the most important risks of contamination is dust inhalation. In contrast to the other modes of contamination, the inhaled uranium has been proposed to enter the brain not only by the common route of all modes of exposure, the blood pathway, but also by a specific inhalation exposure route, the olfactory pathway. To test whether the inhaled uranium enter the brain directly from the nasal cavity, male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to both inhaled and intraperitoneally injected uranium using the (236)U and (233)U, respectively, as tracers. The results showed a specific frontal brain accumulation of the inhaled uranium which is not observed with the injected uranium. Furthermore, the inhaled uranium is higher than the injected uranium in the olfactory bulbs (OB) and tubercles, in the frontal cortex and in the hypothalamus. In contrast, the other cerebral areas (cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum and brain residue) did not show any preferential accumulation of inhaled or injected uranium. These results mean that inhaled uranium enters the brain via a direct transfer from the nasal turbinates to the OB in addition to the systemic pathway. The uranium transfer from the nasal turbinates to the OB is lower in animals showing a reduced level of olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) induced by an olfactory epithelium lesion prior to the uranium inhalation exposure. These results give prominence to a role of the ORN in the direct transfer of the uranium from the nasal cavity to the brain.

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Uranium is a heavy metal naturally present in the environment that may be chronically ingested by the population. Previous studies have shown that uranium is present in the brain and alters behaviour, notably locomotor activity, sensorimotor ability, sleep/wake cycle and the memory process, but also metabolism of neurotransmitters. The cholinergic system mediates many cognitive systems, including those disturbed after chronic exposure to uranium i.e., spatial memory, sleep/wake cycle and locomotor activity. The objective of this study was to assess whether these disorders follow uranium-induced alteration of the cholinergic system. In comparison with 40 control rats, 40 rats drank 40 mg/L uranyl nitrate for 1.5 or 9 months. Cortex and hippocampus were removed and gene expression and protein level were analysed to determine potential changes in cholinergic receptors and acetylcholine levels. The expression of genes showed various alterations in the two brain areas after short- and long-term exposure. Nevertheless, protein levels of the choline acetyltransferase enzyme (ChAT), the vesicular transporter of acetylcholine (VAChT) and the nicotinic receptor beta2 sub-unit (nAChRbeta2) were unmodified in all cases of the experiment and muscarinic receptor type 1 (m1AChR) protein level was disturbed only after 9 months of exposure in the cortex (-30%). Acetylcholine levels were unchanged in the hippocampus after 1.5 and 9 months, but were decreased in the cortex after 1.5 months only (-22%). Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was also unchanged in the hippocampus but decreased in the cortex after 1.5 and 9 months (-16% and -18%, respectively). Taken together, these data indicate that the cholinergic system is a target of uranium exposure in a structure-dependent and time-dependent manner. These cholinergic alterations could participate in behavioural impairments.

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Although the nephrotoxicity of uranium has been established through numerous animal studies, relatively little is known about the effects of long-term environmental uranium exposure. Using a combination of conventional biochemical studies and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), we examined the renal responses to uranyl nitrate (UN) chronic exposure. Renal uranium levels were significantly increased 4 months after ingestion of uranium in drinking water. Creatinine levels in serum were slightly but significantly increased compared with those in controls. Although no further significant differences in other parameters were noted, substantial molecular changes were observed in toxicogenomic profiles. UN induced dramatic alterations in expression levels of more than 200 genes, mainly up-regulated, including oxidative-response-related genes, genes encoding for cellular metabolism, ribosomal proteins, signal transduction, and solute transporters. Seven differentially expressed transcripts were confirmed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In addition, significantly increased peroxide levels support the implication of oxidative stress in UN toxicant response. This report highlights the potential of SAGE for the discovery of novel toxicant-induced gene expression alterations. Here, we present, for the first time, a comprehensive view of renal molecular events after uranium long-term exposure.

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