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UNLABELLED: INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: With this study we aimed to describe a "true world" picture of severe paediatric 'community-acquired' septic shock and establish the feasibility of a future prospective trial on early goal-directed therapy in children. During a 6-month to 1-year retrospective screening period in 16 emergency departments (ED) in 12 different countries, all children with severe sepsis and signs of decreased perfusion were included. RESULTS: A 270,461 paediatric ED consultations were screened, and 176 cases were identified. Significant comorbidity was present in 35.8 % of these cases. Intensive care admission was deemed necessary in 65.7 %, mechanical ventilation in 25.9 % and vasoactive medications in 42.9 %. The median amount of fluid given in the first 6 h was 30 ml/kg. The overall mortality in this sample was 4.5 %. Only 1.2 % of the survivors showed a substantial decrease in Paediatric Overall Performance Category (POPC). 'Severe' outcome (death or a decrease ≥2 in POPC) was significantly related (p < 0.01) to: any desaturation below 90 %, the amount of fluid given in the first 6 h, the need for and length of mechanical ventilation or vasoactive support, the use of dobutamine and a higher lactate or lower base excess but not to any variables of predisposition, infection or host response (as in the PIRO (Predisposition, Infection, Response, Organ dysfunction) concept). CONCLUSION: The outcome in our sample was very good. Many children received treatment early in their disease course, so avoiding subsequent intensive care. While certain variables predispose children to become septic and shocked, in our sample, only measures of organ dysfunction and concomitant treatment proved to be significantly related with outcome. We argue why future studies should rather be large multinational prospective observational trials and not necessarily randomised controlled trials.

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Treatment for chronic inflammatory conditions in children should take into account the specific pathophysiological and clinical processes underlying these disorders. These guidelines provide a framework for both the medical and surgical treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases such as otitis media, allergic rhinitis and chronic rhinosinusitis, chronic inflammation of tonsils and adenoids, and laryngitis. In addition, the role of vaccinations and immunomodulatory therapies is discussed. Whenever possible, the evidence levels for specific treatments comply with the Oxford Levels of Evidence.

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Abdominal Compartment Syndrome (ACS) occurs relatively infrequent in a paediatric population when compared with adults. Overall mortality is still high. Also, the pathophysiologic mechanism that leads to ACS is different in children. In this review, we will present an overview on ACS in children admitted to a paediatric intensive care unit.

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Abdominal Compartment Syndrome (ACS) occurs relatively infrequent in a paediatric population when compared with adults. Overall mortality is still high. Also, the pathophysiologic mechanism that leads to ACS is different in children. In this review, we will present an overview on ACS in children admitted to a paediatric intensive care unit.

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UNLABELLED: Chronic lung disease (CLD) has been associated with chorioamnionitis and upper respiratory tract colonisation with Ureaplasma urealyticum. The aim of this review is to describe the increasing evidence that inflammation plays a critical role in the early stages of CLD of the neonate. Ongoing lung damage in the premature infant may be caused by failure to downregulate and control this inflammatory response. Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-8 are important pro-inflammatory cytokines of which IL-8 is an important chemotactic factor in the lung. Data suggest that preterm newborns with lung inflammation may be unable to activate the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Therefore, early post-natal anti-inflammatory therapy could help in preventing development of CLD. Prophylactic dexamethasone therapy cannot yet be recommended. There are a number of potential interactions between surfactant and cytokine effects on the preterm lung which have not been evaluated. Surfactant protein A may be an important modulator of the immune response to lung injury. The role of high-frequency ventilation in the prevention of CLD still remains unclear. CONCLUSION: Many aspects of the pathogenesis of the inflammatory response in the development of chronic lung disease remain to be elucidated. Further research to identify preterm infants at highest risk for the development of this multifactorial and complex disease is needed.

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OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors and describe the microbiology of catheter exit-site and hub colonization in neonates. DESIGN: During a period of 2 years, we prospectively investigated 14 risk factors for catheter exit-site and hub colonization in 862 central venous catheters in a cohort of 441 neonates. Cultures of the catheter exit-site and hub were obtained using semiquantitative techniques at time of catheter removal. SETTING: A neonatal intensive care unit at a university hospital. RESULTS: Catheter exit-site colonization was found in 7.2% and hub colonization in 5.3%. Coagulase-negative staphylococci were predominant at both sites. Pathogenic flora were found more frequently at the catheter hub (36% vs 14%; P<.05). Through logistic regression, factors associated with exit-site colonization were identified as umbilical insertion (odds ratio [OR], 8.1; 95% confidence interval [CI95], 2.35-27.6; P<.001), subclavian insertion (OR, 54.6; CI95, 12.2-244, P<.001), and colonization of the catheter hub (OR, 8.9; CI, 3.5-22.8; P<.001). Catheter-hub colonization was associated with total parenteral nutrition ([TPN] OR for each day of TPN, 1.056; CI95, 1.029-1.083; P<.001) and catheter exit-site colonization (OR, 6.11; CI95, 2.603-14.34; P<.001). No association was found between colonization at these sites and duration of catheterization and venue of insertion, physician's experience, postnatal age and patient's weight, ventilation, steroids or antibiotics, and catheter repositioning. CONCLUSION: These data support that colonization of the catheter exit-site is associated with the site of insertion and colonization of the catheter hub with the use of TPN. There is a very strong association between colonization at both catheter sites.

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The aim of this study was to identify risk factors for catheter-associated bloodstream infection (CABSI) in neonates. We undertook a prospective investigation of the potential risk factors for CABSI (patient-related, treatment-related and catheter-related) in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) using univariate and multivariate techniques. We also investigated the relationship between catheter hub and catheter exit site colonization with CABSI.Thirty-five episodes of CABSI occurred in 862 central catheters over a period of 8028 catheter-days, with a cumulative incidence of 4.1/100 catheters and an incidence density of 4.4/1000 catheter days. Factors independently associated with CABSI were: catheter hub colonization (odds ratio [OR] = 44.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 14.5 to 134.4), exit site colonization (OR = 14.4, CI = 4.8 to 42.6), extremely low weight (< 1000 g) at time of catheter insertion (OR = 5.13, CI = 2.1 to 12.5), duration of parenteral nutrition (OR=1.04, CI=1.0 to 1.08) and catheter insertion after first week of life (OR = 2.7, CI = 1.1 to 6.7). In 15 (43%) out of the 35 CABSI episodes the catheter hub was colonized, in nine (26%) cases the catheter exit site was colonized and in three (9%) cases colonization was found at both sites. This prospective cohort study on CABSI in a NICU identified five risk factors of which two can be used for risk-stratified incidence density description (birthweight and time of catheter insertion). It also emphasized the importance of catheter exit site, hub colonization and exposure to parenteral nutrition in the pathogenesis of CABSI.

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A prospective cohort study was performed to evaluate the influence of catheter manipulations on catheter associated bloodstream infection (CABSI) in neonates. Neonates admitted between 1 November 1993 and 31 October 1994 at the neonatal intensive care unit of a university hospital were included in the study. Seventeen episodes of CABSI occurred in 357 central catheters over a period of 3470 catheter-days, with a cumulative incidence of 4.7/100 catheters and an incidence density of 4.9/1000 catheter-days. Patient and catheter-related risk factors independently associated with CABSI were: catheter hub colonization (odds ratio [OR] = 32.6, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 4.3-249), extremely low weight (

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A comparative retrospective cohort study was performed to evaluate the influence of hospital-acquired infection (HAI) in neonates on additional charges and hospital stay. Neonates admitted between October 1993 and discharged alive before December 1995 at the neonatal intensive care unit of a university hospital were studied. Of 515 neonates, 69 (13%) had one or more HAI; 45 (20 with proven HAI, 25 with suspected HAI) were matched to 45 controls. After matching for gestational age, surgery, artificial ventilation and patent ductus arteriosus, central vascular catheter utilization was the only factor significantly associated with HAI. Charges were obtained from hospital discharge abstracts and the duration of hospitalization from patients' files. The mean additional length of hospital stay in neonates with HAI was 24 days (54 days vs. 30 days, P= 0.002) but did not differ significantly in patients with proven or suspected HAI (67 days vs. 51 days, P> 0.05). The mean extra charges for patients with a HAI were 11 750 EURO (9635 pounds). Accommodation accounted for 72%, fees for 22%, pharmaceuticals for 5% and ancillary items for 1% of these extra charges. The mean charges per day were similar for controls [443 EURO (363 pounds)] and HAI patients [453 EURO (372 pounds)]. Overall charges and charges per day were similar for neonates with proven and suspected HAI.

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The relationship between air contamination (cfu/m(3)) with fungal spores, especially Aspergillus spp., in three renovation areas of a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and colonization and infection rates in a high care area (HC) equipped with high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration and a high pressure system, was evaluated. Data on the type and site of renovation works, outdoor meteorological conditions, patient crowding and nasopharyngeal colonization rate were collected. Factors not associated with Aspergillus spp. concentration were outdoor temperature, air pressure, wind speed, humidity, rainfall, patient density in the NICU, renovation works in the administrative area and in the isolation rooms. Multivariate analysis revealed that renovation works and air concentration of Aspergillus spp. spores in the medium care area (MC) resulted in a significant increase of the concentration in the HC of the NICU. The use of a mobile HEPA air filtration system (MedicCleanAir(R)Forte, Willebroek, Belgium) caused a significant decrease in the Aspergillus spp. concentration. There was no relationship between Aspergillus spp. air concentration and nasopharyngeal colonization in the neonates. Invasive aspergillosis did not occur during the renovation. This study highlights the importance of optimal physical barriers and air filtration to decrease airborne fungal spores in high-risk units during renovation works. The value of patient surveillance and environmental air sampling is questionable since no relationship was found between air contamination and colonization in patients.

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OBJECTIVE: To develop an easy-to-use bedside scoring system, composed of clinical variables, hematologic variables, and risk factors of infection, to predict nosocomial sepsis in neonatal intensive care unit patients. SETTING: A neonatal intensive care unit in a university hospital, Antwerp, Belgium. PATIENTS: Over 2 yrs, we analyzed two groups of patients. First, we prospectively studied 104 episodes of presumed nosocomial sepsis in 80 neonates (derivation cohort), and then we retrospectively studied 50 episodes in 39 neonates (validation cohort). INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We developed two versions of a scoring system to predict nosocomial sepsis in sick neonates. The first scoring system (NOSEP-1 score) was based on 15 clinical, 12 laboratory, and 17 historical variables potentially connected with infection; the second one (NOSEP-2 score) also included the culture results of central vascular catheters. Based on the odds ratios of all independent variables, an additive and weighted score was developed and validated in a cohort of 39 patients screened for nosocomial sepsis in the same center. The NOSEP-1 score consisted of three laboratory variables (C-reactive protein > or =14 mg/L, thrombocytopenia <150 x 10(9)/L, and neutrophil fraction >50%), one clinical factor (fever >38.2 degrees C [100.8 degrees F]), and one risk factor (parenteral nutrition for > or =14 days). The NOSEP-2 score consisted of the same variables plus catheter-hub and catheter insertion site colonization data. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis demonstrated good predictor performance of the NOSEP-1 score (area under the curve [Az] = 0.82 +/- 0.04 [SEM]) and NOSEP-2 score (Az = 0.84 +/- 0.04, p < .05). We checked whether a complex computer-generated scoring system (CD-1 and CD-2 scores) based on the original numerical values of the items used in NOSEP-1 and NOSEP-2 would improve the prediction of nosocomial sepsis. The analysis showed the accuracy of bedside NOSEP-1 and NOSEP-2 scores to be comparable with the more cumbersome computer-generated CD-1 and CD-2 scores (receiver operating characteristic curve, Az: CD-1 score = 0.81 +/- 0.04, p = .69, and CD-2 score = 0.86 +/- 0.04, p = .96). Finally, in the validation cohort, we showed that the developed scoring system has a good prediction potential for nosocomial sepsis (Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test, chi2 [19] = 16.34, p > .75). CONCLUSIONS: The simple bedside scoring system NOSEP-1 composed of C-reactive protein, neutrophil fraction, thrombocytopenia, fever, and prolonged parenteral nutrition exposure provides a valuable tool for early identification of nosocomial sepsis. Its predictive power can be improved by adding central vascular catheter insertion site and hub colonization to the score.

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How obstetricians' opinions regarding universal screening of pregnant woman for group B streptococcus and their attitude regarding chemoprophylaxis vary from the Centres for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines were studied, and the physician characteristics that predict divergent opinions were determined. Five hundred and eighty-two obstetricians in the Flanders region of Belgium were contacted by a postal survey. Ordinal logistic regression was used to assess obstetricians' characteristics that predict divergence. Only 44% agreed with routine prenatal screening for group B streptococcus of whom 72% would screen at 35 weeks. Intrapartum prophylaxis would be done on the basis of risk factors alone in 38%. Multivariate analysis revealed significant provincial differences (best in Antwerp, worst in West-Flanders) and increasing age was associated with decreasing compliance. It is concluded that a minority of the obstetricians believes in routine prenatal screening and one-third would give prophylaxis on the basis of risk factors alone. Obstetrician's age and province of practice predict divergent opinions.