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AIM: To audit the prevalence of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in a level 2 status neonatal unit. METHODS: Data were collected prospectively over 9 years from September 1989 to September 1998. Preterm infants were examined according to the Royal College of Ophthalmologists' guidelines and retinopathy graded following the International Classification of ROP. ROP 3-5 was analysed using logistic regression in relation to time, and to gestational age and birth weight. RESULTS: 383 babies were examined. Mean gestational age fell over the 9 year period (p=0.051) as did mean birth weight (p<0.001). There was a decrease in the number of infants with ROP grades 3-5 over the 9 years (p=0.045 and, when adjusted for gestational age and birth weight, the decrease in ROP 3-5 was significant (p=0.03). CONCLUSIONS: This study found a significant reduction in the incidence of ROP during the 9 years of the study period, despite a decrease in mean gestational age of and birth weight. The reduced incidence of ROP is attributed to improvements in ventilation techniques and overall care of the neonate, in particular the use of prenatal steroids and surfactant.

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AIMS: To determine the relation between pH of anaesthetic solutions and patient perception of pain with peribulbar injection of local anaesthesia. METHODS: This prospective randomised controlled double blind pilot study involved 60 consecutive patients who received a peribulbar block with either a standard acidic local anaesthetic of 5 ml 2% lignocaine and 5 ml of 0.5% bupivacaine (solution A), or an alkalinised solution composed of the same anaesthetic agents but with a pH of 7.44 (solution B). Before surgery patients were asked to grade the pain of both the preoperative dilating drops and the peribulbar injection using a visual analogue scale. RESULTS: The mean pain scores were similar in the two treatment groups-slightly higher (4.97) in group B who received the buffered solution, compared with group A (4.84) who received the plain solution. The small difference (-0.13, 95% confidence limits -1.6 and +1.3) was not significant. There was, however, a highly significant association between pain threshold ("drop pain") and injection pain levels (p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: This study showed no difference in the reduction in the pain experienced by patients undergoing peribulbar anaesthesia with pH buffered local anaesthetic. The study suggests the importance of "pain threshold" as a confounder and also showed the considerable pain felt by some patients on instillation of the preoperative dilating drops.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on the natural history of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective analysis of 103 consecutive patients diagnosed with CMV retinitis between 1990 and 1998. SETTING: Specialist HIV medicine department of a London hospital. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence of CMV retinitis, time to death following diagnosis, episodes of progression, incidence of inflammatory complications. The date of first use of HAART was January 1995. Data were censored on 30 June 1998. RESULTS: The incidence of CMV retinitis has declined dramatically following the introduction of HAART. Survival following CMV retinitis increased from a median of 0.65 years prior to 1995 to a median of 1.07 years after this date (P = 0.004). In multivariate analyses HAART was independently associated with improved survival (P = 0.02) and the association with year of diagnosis was no longer significant, suggesting that this effect is predominantly due to HAART. None of the patients receiving HAART experienced progression after 6 months of treatment. Complications of retinitis such as retinal detachment, uveitis and optic atrophy occurred in 39% of patients. The rare inflammatory complications of vitritis and cystoid macular oedema occurred only in recipients of HAART. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction of HAART has had a major impact on the natural history of CMV retinitis with improved survival time and decreased risk of progression following diagnosis. However, immune reconstitution may be associated with inflammatory complications which can result in significant visual loss in the absence of active CMV disease.

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OBJECTIVES: To determine whether recurrence of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) viraemia during maintenance ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis correlates with (i) CMV disease at a new anatomical site, (ii) progression of the presenting retinitis, or (iii) acquisition of genetic changes in gene UL97 associated with resistance to ganciclovir. DESIGN: A previously described cohort of 45 patients presenting with first episode retinitis was followed clinically using ophthalmoscopy and serial tests for PCR viraemia for a median of 7 months. CMV viral load and genetic markers of ganciclovir resistance were measured in PCR-positive samples. METHODS: PCR amplification of the glycoprotein B region of CMV and quantitative competitive PCR assays were employed. Genetic changes in UL97 were identified by sequencing/point mutation assay. RESULTS: PCR viraemia correlated significantly with new episodes of CMV disease (P=0.011) and a trend was seen for the association with progression of retinitis (P=0.07). Amongst the 14 patients PCR-positive during maintenance ganciclovir, 10 (71%) had genetic markers of resistance. None of these patients became PCR-negative in blood after reinduction ganciclovir therapy compared with three out of four without markers of resistance (P=0.022). CONCLUSIONS: CMV PCR viraemia correlated strongly with the development of new episodes of CMV disease. Most patients with progression of retinitis remained PCR-negative in blood, consistent with therapeutic failure due to poor intraocular penetration of ganciclovir. However, the minority who were PCR-positive in blood may have reinfected their eye, and frequently had markers of ganciclovir resistance. The implications of these findings for the management of patients with CMV disease are discussed.

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BACKGROUND: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease is a major cause of morbidity in patients with HIV infection. Despite treatment, CMV retinitis causes substantial visual loss, especially in patients with CD4 cell counts below 50 x 10(6)/l. Although routine ophthalmological screening of these patients has been recommended, no controlled trials have evaluated how frequently it should be performed. The aim of this study was to assess whether CMV polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results could direct ophthalmological screening to patients at high risk of CMV retinitis. METHODS: In a prospective study of HIV-positive patients with CD4 cell counts below 50 x 10(6)/l, CMV viraemia was detected by qualitative PCR of whole blood. Patients who were CMV PCR-viraemic were allocated to monthly virological and ophthalmological follow-up; patients who were PCR-negative received 3-monthly virological and ophthalmological follow-up. CMV viral load was determined in all CMV-positive samples using a quantitative competitive PCR. RESULTS: Nineteen out of 97 patients developed CMV disease over the first 12 months of the study. Sixteen (59%) out of 27 patients who were CMV-positive developed disease compared with three (4%) out of 70 of patients who were PCR-negative (P = 0.0001). A positive CMV PCR result was significantly associated with the development of disease (P = 0.0001), with a relative hazard of 20.15 [95% confidence interval (CI), 5.80-69.98]. Median CMV viral load was significantly higher in those individuals who went on to develop CMV disease (P = 0.02). In PCR-positive patients, each 0.25 log10 increase in viral load increased the risk of disease (relative hazard, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.15-1.63; P = 0.0004). CONCLUSIONS: CMV PCR predicts the development of CMV disease and can be used to target ophthalmological resources to those patients at highest risk of retinitis. Asymptomatic patients who are PCR-positive represent a high-risk group in whom controlled trials of pre-emptive therapy could be conducted.

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BACKGROUND: More than 90% of patients with HIV have been infected at some time with cytomegalovirus (CMV) and up to 40% of those with advanced HIV will develop CMV disease. The incidence of CMV disease is increasing but the prognosis for the patient remains poor. MONITORING FOR CMV: It is therefore important to monitor patients with low CD4+ counts in order to identify those most at risk of developing CMV disease and to treat them before the disease becomes established. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is probably the most effective and sensitive method of detecting CMV and a positive result is predictive for development of CMV disease; more than 80% of patients with CMV retinitis are CMV PCR-positive at the time of diagnosis. PCR can also detect the presence of CMV up to 14 months before the development of retinitis. TREATMENT OF CMV RETINITIS: In patients with detectable CMV, but no evidence of active infection, pre-emptive treatment with ganciclovir or valaciclovir has been shown to reduce the risk of developing retinitis in these high-risk patients. Such oral therapy, which is generally better tolerated than intravenous therapy and results in a better quality of life for the patient, is likely to be more effective at this stage whilst viral loads are low. CONCLUSIONS: CMV PCR can be used to prospectively monitor patients in order to identify those most at risk of developing CMV retinitis. If CMV infection is diagnosed early, while viral loads are still low, pre-emptive oral therapy can be instituted which will reduce the chances of developing retinitis in those patients most at risk.

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Many physicians feel less confident about managing red eyes than any problem they commonly encounter. This article presents a quick, systematic way of approaching red eyes and encourages physicians to treat minor problems themselves and to refer appropriately (urgently of routinely) those where specialist help is needed.

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A study comparing the macular function of both eyes of 130 urological surgeons was carried out to investigate whether the increased light exposure to the endoscoping eye caused any deterioration of macular function. The non-endoscoping eye was used as a control. A sophisticated computer test of colour contrast sensitivity was used. The computer assesses the degree of brightness at which the subject is just able to detect a coloured grating, and for each eye this is expressed as a threshold for the red/green axis and the blue/yellow (tritan) axis. The subjects also completed a questionnaire about their working patterns and their general and ophthalmic history and had a brief examination of the fundus. The results do not suggest that urologists are suffering any significant macular damage as a result of their work with endoscopes.

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Blue light present in the visible spectrum at the lower wavelengths can cause damage to the retinas of monkeys and rats. In the present study the light sources and instrumentation available to the urologist were evaluated to see whether they posed a hazard. The light emitting directly from the sources, cables and telescopes was tested and these levels were found to be dangerous to the eye when compared with the safety limit recommended by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). When the light at the eyepiece of the telescopes which had been reflected off a surface was measured, the blue light levels did not appear to be harmful when compared with the ACGIH safety limit. The use of filters is discussed and the transmission of 2 types of filters shown. While the level of blue light emission from the eyepiece remains within the ACGIH level, there are no data on long-term exposure. The addition of a blue light filter may be beneficial until such time as videoendoscopy becomes the norm. The light from light sources should be protected by a shutter and more care taken with the emission from cables and telescopes.

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A skimmed-milk clearing assay was used to identify, in a multicopy Streptomyces lividans 66 genomic library, DNA fragments that lead to increased expression of protease activity in S. lividans 66. Three independent loci were identified. The majority class (slpA, which represented 68 of 71 clones) produced large zones of clearing. Two other classes (designated slpB and slpC) showed smaller zones than slpA. Subcloning and deletion analysis of the slpA locus delineated the relevant DNA to within a 2.5 kilobase pair fragment. DNA sequence analysis revealed a structural gene associated with the appearance of an extracellular protein in the culture medium. The derived amino acid sequence indicated the presence of a zinc-binding motif, which was previously noted to be characteristic of metalloprotease enzymes. However, the relatively small size of the protein (apparent molecular weight 20,000-24,000) suggests that it represents a novel class of neutral proteases distinct from the thermolysin-type enzymes. An adjacent divergent open reading frame was identified and shown to cause a significant increase in protease activity when present together with the protease structural gene on a multicopy plasmid in S. lividans 66. The derived amino acid sequence of this open reading frame showed homology with previously characterized regulatory proteins of the LysR family of transcriptional regulator proteins.

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Six cases are presented in which hard contact lenses have migrated into the periocular soft tissues, four into the eyelid, one into the orbit and one which spontaneously reappeared on the cornea 12 years after the patient had last worn contact lenses. Some possible mechanisms of this phenomenon and a review of the literature are presented.

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Protease A and protease B are extracellular proteins which are secreted by Streptomyces griseus. The genes encoding protease A (sprA) and protease B (sprB) were isolated from an S. griseus genomic library by using a synthetic oligonucleotide probe. Fragments containing sprA and sprB were characterized by hybridization and demonstration of proteolytic activity in Streptomyces lividans. Each DNA sequence contains a large open reading frame with the coding region of the mature protease situated at its carboxy terminus. The amino terminus of each reading frame appears to encode a 38-amino-acid signal peptide followed by a 76- or 78-amino-acid polypeptide, a propeptide, which is joined to the mature protease. Strong homology between the coding regions of the protease genes suggests that sprA and sprB originated by gene duplication.

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We evaluated the effect of 0.1% sodium hyaluronate (unpreserved) in 10 patients with dry eyes. The precorneal tear film break-up time was assessed by the non-invasive technique, and the severity of symptoms was recorded before and after treatment on a 0 to +3 scale. It was found that the tear film stability was significantly increased (p less than 0.05) in eyes treated with sodium hyaluronate. The symptoms of grittiness and burning were also significantly alleviated in the treated eyes.

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Six patients with choroidal tumours who were investigated by fine needle aspiration biopsy are presented. The indications, methods and results are described and the diagnostic value and research applications outlined.

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