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Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) is associated with long-term disability, serious reduction in quality of life and significant mortality. Early brain injury (EBI) refers to the pathological changes in cerebral metabolism and blood flow that happen in the first few days after ictus and may lead on to delayed cerebral ischaemia (DCI). A disruption of the nitric oxide (NO) pathway is hypothesised as a key mechanism underlying EBI. A decrease in the alpha-delta power ratio (ADR) of the electroencephalogram has been related to cerebral ischaemia. In an experimental medicine study, we tested the hypothesis that intravenous sodium nitrite, an NO donor, would lead to increases in ADR. We studied 33 patients with acute aneurysmal SAH in the EBI phase. Participants were randomised to either sodium nitrite or saline infusion for 1 h. EEG measurements were taken before the start of and during the infusion. Twenty-eight patients did not develop DCI and five patients developed DCI. In the patients who did not develop DCI, we found an increase in ADR during sodium nitrite versus saline infusion. In the five patients who developed DCI, we did not observe a consistent pattern of ADR changes. We suggest that ADR power changes in response to nitrite infusion reflect a NO-mediated reduction in cerebral ischaemia and increase in perfusion, adding further evidence to the role of the NO pathway in EBI after SAH. Our findings provide the basis for future clinical trials employing NO donors after SAH.

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The first 72 h following aneurysm rupture play a key role in determining clinical and cognitive outcomes after subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). Yet, very little is known about the impact of so called "early brain injury" on patents with clinically good grade SAH (as defined as World Federation of Neurosurgeons Grade 1 and 2). 27 patients with good grade SAH underwent MRI scanning were prospectively recruited at three time-points after SAH: within the first 72 h (acute phase), at 5-10 days and at 3 months. Patients underwent additional, comprehensive cognitive assessment 3 months post-SAH. 27 paired healthy controls were also recruited for comparison. In the first 72 h post-SAH, patients had significantly higher global and regional brain volume than controls. This change was accompanied by restricted water diffusion in patients. Persisting abnormalities in the volume of the posterior cerebellum at 3 months post-SAH were present to those patients with worse cognitive outcome. When using this residual abnormal brain area as a region of interest in the acute-phase scans, we could predict with an accuracy of 84% (sensitivity 82%, specificity 86%) which patients would develop cognitive impairment 3 months later, despite initially appearing clinically indistinguishable from those making full recovery. In an exploratory sample of good clinical grade SAH patients compared to healthy controls, we identified a region of the posterior cerebellum for which acute changes on MRI were associated with cognitive impairment. Whilst further investigation will be required to confirm causality, use of this finding as a risk stratification biomarker is promising.

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BACKGROUND: While anatomic features associated with the risk of posterior communicating artery (PcoA) occlusion after embolization of aneurysms of the PcoA segment of the internal carotid artery (ICA) are well known, the link between perforator origin and perforator infarction has only been reported following neurosurgical clipping. The aim of this study was to determine the origin of anterior thalamic perforators and correlate it with risk of perforator infarction after embolization of PcoA segment aneurysms. METHODS: One-hundred-and-ninety consecutive patients treated for PcoA segment aneurysms between 2017 and 2019 were included. PcoA and anterior thalamic perforator origin anatomy was assessed with computed tomography (CT) angiography, digital subtracted angiography, and high-resolution three-dimensional rotational cone-beam CT angiography (CBCT-A) by two independent interventional neuroradiologists. The presence of perforator infarction after embolization was ascertained from the patient's notes and follow-up imaging. RESULTS: CBCT-A was superior in demonstrating the origin of perforators (P<0.001). The prevalence of perforator origin was estimated at 86% (95% CI 81%-92%) for PcoA, 8% (95% CI 4%-13%) for aneurysm wall, and 5% (95% CI 2%-9%) for ICA. The aneurysm wall origin was exclusively associated with PcoA agenesis, as well as higher risk of perforator infarction after aneurysm coiling compared with other variants (OR=14, 95% CI 2-88, P=0.006). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that anterior thalamic perforators may arise from aneurysm wall when there is no PcoA. Anatomic association between PcoA agenesis and perforator arising from ICA could underlie such findings, and careful consideration is essential before aneurysm repair to anticipate the risk of thalamic infarction in such cases.

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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Low profile braided stents have facilitated the endovascular treatment of broad-based intracranial aneurysms. METHODS: Between 2013 and June 2018, we attempted 104 Leo baby stent placements in 101 patients. Locations were the anterior communicating artery (AcomA) (37 aneurysms, 35.6%), middle cerebral artery (MCA) bifurcation (29 aneurysms, 27.9%) and basilar artery (23aneurysms, 22.1%). Mean neck size was 4.9 mm (2.2-8.2). 60 aneurysms were incidental, 31 of 37 recurrent aneurysms had ruptured before. RESULTS: Stent deployment was successful in 89.4% of cases. Common reasons for failure were inability to access the parent artery (n=5) or to deploy the stent across the aneurysm neck (n=4). Two patients had poor outcomes within 24 hours. One patient developed a brain hemorrhage caused by guide wire perforation (MRS 5), the other an early thrombotic stent occlusion (MRS 4). No patient died. Nine (8.7%) patients experienced transient neurological deficits with ischemic lesions on diffusion weighted imaging (DWI). Initially Raymond-Roy class 1 occlusion was achieved in 23 aneurysms (24.7%), class 2 occlusion in 40 (43%), class 3a occlusion in 14 (15.0%), and 3b occlusion in 16 aneurysms (17.2%). Follow-up imaging in 87 patients showed stable or improved occlusion grades in 76%. Six patients required retreatment while the rest were managed conservatively. Four delayed stent occlusions occurred in three patients, with severe morbidity in one patient (MRS 5). There were no aneurysm ruptures or deaths. CONCLUSION: Stent assisted treatment of broad-based aneurysms with the Leo baby stent is safe and effective. The frequency of delayed thrombotic complications is low and similar to other stents.

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Cerebral metastases from carcinoid tumours are rarely reported and confer a much poorer prognosis than carcinoid metastases elsewhere in the body. We describe a case of carcinoid brain metastasis closely resembling a meningioma on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and review current treatment options.

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In the original version of this article one author name was published incorrectly: Tanja Ddjurdjevic has been corrected to Tanja Djurdjevic.

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PURPOSE: Endovascular stents are widely used for the elective treatment of cerebral aneurysms. Acute stenting is performed in the management of dissections, pseudo-aneurysms, broad-based aneurysms or as a 'bail out' measure after coil migration. The purpose of this study is to review the safety of using stents in acute subarachnoid haemorrhage. METHODS: The stent registry of our institution was reviewed for procedures in patients with acute subarachnoid haemorrhage. Imaging studies were reviewed on the hospital's PACS system and the patients' notes were retrieved to assess complications and clinical outcomes. Procedures were analysed according to the type of stent, treatment indication, antiplatelet regime, complications and outcomes. RESULTS: Between 2008 and 2016, 51 stents were placed during 50 stenting procedures in 49 patients with acute subarachnoid haemorrhage. This included 24 patients with saccular aneurysms, 10 with blister aneurysms, 10 dissections and five fusiform aneurysms. Stents were deployed in 'bail out' situations on eight occasions. In six cases, flow-diverting stents were used. Eighteen patients (37%) in the cohort suffered a stroke. Nine patients (18%) suffered persistent clinical deficits as a result of the stenting procedure, all but one of which occurred within 24 h. Two patients had a transient ischaemic episode, and there was evidence of asymptomatic ischaemia on imaging in four cases (8%). Five patients died, three (6%) as a result of procedural complications. Twelve patients (25%) required a further embolisation procedure. CONCLUSION: The use of stents in acute subarachnoid haemorrhage incurs a considerable complication risk and should be reserved for exceptional circumstances.

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A traumatic caroticocavernous fistula (CCF) is an acquired, abnormal communication between the internal carotid artery and the cavernous sinus, secondary to trauma. This rare condition can initially be misdiagnosed, because its presentation shares features common to those of facial trauma, which can result in serious complications. We describe a case of bilateral CCF in an adult patient after a road traffic accident.

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OBJECTIVE Delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) causing cerebral infarction remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). Early brain injury in the first 72 hours following rupture is likely to play a key role in the pathophysiology underlying DCI but remains difficult to quantify objectively. Current diagnostic modalities are based on the concept of vasoconstriction causing cerebral ischemia and infarction and are either invasive or have a steep learning curve and user variability. The authors sought to determine whether saccadic eye movements are impaired following aSAH and whether this measurement in the acute period is associated with the likelihood of developing DCI. METHODS As part of a prospective, observational cohort study, 24 male and female patients (mean age 53 years old, range 31-70 years old) were recruited. Inclusion criteria included presentation with World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies (WFNS) Grades 1 or 2 ("good grade") aSAH on admission and endovascular treatment within 72 hours of aneurysmal rupture. DCI and DCI-related cerebral infarction were defined according to consensus guidelines. Saccadometry data were collected at 3 time points in patients: in the first 72 hours, between Days 5 and 10, and at 3 months after aSAH. Data from 10 healthy controls was collected on 1 occasion for comparison. RESULTS Age-adjusted saccadic latency in patients was significantly prolonged in the first 72 hours following aSAH when compared with controls (188.7 msec [95% CI 176.9-202.2 msec] vs 160.7 msec [95% CI 145.6-179.4 msec], respectively; p = 0.0054, t-test). By 3 months after aSAH, there was no significant difference in median saccadic latency compared with controls (188.7 msec [95% CI 176.9-202.2 msec] vs 180.0 msec [95% CI 165.1-197.8 msec], respectively; p = 0.4175, t-test). Patients diagnosed with cerebral infarction due to DCI had a significantly higher age-adjusted saccadic latency in the first 72 hours than those without infarction (240.6 msec [95% CI 216.7-270.3 msec] vs 204.1 msec [95% CI 190.7-219.5 msec], respectively; p = 0.0157, t-test). This difference was more pronounced during Days 5-10 following aSAH, the peak incidence for DCI (303.7 msec [95% CI 266.7-352.7 msec] vs 207.6 msec [95% CI 193.7-223.6 msec], respectively; p < 0.0001, t-test). A binary generalized linear model showed that latency in the first 72 hours was the only significant predictor of cerebral infarction (p = 0.0185). CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to use saccadometry to measure the saccadic latency of eye movements in patients with aSAH during the acute period following aneurysm rupture. The results showed that median saccadic latency is associated with the risk of developing cerebral infarction due to DCI and may act as a potential objective biomarker to guide the need for intensive care admission and treatment. Future studies will look to formally validate saccadic latency as a biomarker of DCI in a larger cohort and assess whether the addition of saccades improves current clinical models for predicting patients at risk.

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There are no agreed national guidelines for the treatment of fractures of the frontal sinus and the naso-orbitoethmoid complex. The Oxford University Hospitals Craniofacial Trauma unit was set up five years ago as a joint oral and maxillofacial, ENT, and neurosurgical service, and we present our experience to date in the treatment of patients with such fractures. The study includes 91 patients with data collected from a prospective database. Patients underwent cranialisation if they met the criteria of persistent leak of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), displaced fracture of the posterior wall or obstruction of the nasofrontal outflow tract. The mean follow-up time was 42 months (range 1-10 years). Three groups of patients were analysed. Group 1 met the criteria for, and were treated by, cranialisation (n=50). Group 2 met the criteria for cranialisation, but were treated conservatively because of coexisting conditions (n=8). Group 3 did not match the criteria for treatment, and were managed conservatively (n=33). The numbers of patients with complications or who required further operation were: group 1 (4/50), group 2 (3/8), and group 3 (3/33). There were significantly fewer complications among those patients who met the operative criteria and were treated by cranialisation than among those treated conservatively (p=0.04). These outcomes from one dedicated multispecialist craniofacial trauma unit in the UK may help surgeons who care for patients with this specific group of injuries. Our morbidity was in keeping with published figures.

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INTRODUCTION: Cerebral vasospasm is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) surviving the initial ictus. Commonly used techniques for vasospasm assessment are digital subtraction angiography and transcranial Doppler sonography. These techniques can reliably identify only the major vessel spasm and fail to estimate its haemodynamic significance. To overcome these issues and to enable comprehensive non-invasive assessment of vasospasm inside the interventional suite, a novel protocol involving measurement of parenchymal blood volume (PBV) using C-arm flat detector computed tomography (FDCT) was implemented. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients from the neuro-intensive treatment unit (ITU) with suspected vasospasm following aneurysmal SAH were scanned with a biplane C-arm angiography system using an intravenous contrast injection protocol. The PBV maps were generated using prototype software. Contemporaneous clinically indicated MR scan including the diffusion- and perfusion-weighted sequences was performed. C-arm PBV maps were compared against the MR perfusion maps. RESULTS: Distribution of haemodynamic impairment on C-arm PBV maps closely matched the pattern of abnormality on MR perfusion maps. On visual comparison between the two techniques, the extent of abnormality indicated PBV to be both cerebral blood flow and cerebral blood volume weighted. CONCLUSION: C-arm FDCT PBV measurements allow an objective assessment of the severity and localisation of cerebral hypoperfusion resulting from vasospasm. The technique has proved feasible and useful in very sick patients after aneurysmal SAH. The promise shown in this early study indicates that it deserves further evaluation both for post-SAH vasospasm and in other relevant clinical settings.

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INTRODUCTION: This study assessed volume changes of unruptured large and giant aneurysms (greatest diameter >20 mm) after treatment with flow diverter (FD) stents. METHODS: Clinical audit of the cases treated in a single institution, over a 5-year period. Demographic and clinical data were retrospectively collected from the hospital records. Aneurysm volumes were measured by manual outlining at sequential slices using computerised tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance (MR) angiography data. RESULTS: The audit included eight patients (seven females) with eight aneurysms. Four aneurysms involved the cavernous segment of the internal carotid artery (ICA), three the supraclinoid ICA and one the basilar artery. Seven patients presented with signs and symptoms of mass effect and one with seizures. All but one aneurysm was treated with a single FD stent; six aneurysms were also coiled (either before or simultaneously with FD placement). Minimum follow-up time was 6 months (mean 20 months). At follow-up, three aneurysms decreased in size, three were unchanged and two increased. Both aneurysms that increased in size showed persistent endosaccular flow at follow-up MR; in one case, failure was attributed to suboptimal position of the stent; in the other case, it was attributed to persistence of a side branch originating from the aneurysm (similar to the endoleak phenomenon of aortic aneurysms). At follow-up, five aneurysms were completely occluded; none of these increased in volume. CONCLUSION: Complete occlusion of the aneurysms leads, in most cases, to its shrinkage. In cases of late aneurysm growth or regrowth, consideration should be given to possible endoleak as the cause.

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Delayed cerebral ischaemia (DCI) is the major cause of mortality and morbidity following aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). Recent experimental evidence from animal models has highlighted the need for non-invasive and robust measurements of brain tissue perfusion in patients in order to help understand the pathophysiology underlying DCI. Quantitative, serial, whole-brain cerebral perfusion measurements were obtained with pseudo-continuous arterial spin labelling (PCASL) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in six SAH patients acutely following endovascular coiling. This technique requires no injected contrast or radioactive isotopes. MRI scanning was well tolerated. Artefact from endovascular coils was minimal. PCASL MRI was able to detect time-dependent and patient-specific changes in voxel-wise and regional cerebral blood flow. These changes reflected changes in clinical condition. Data obtained in healthy controls using the same experimental protocol confirm the reliability and reproducibility of these results. This is the first study to use whole-brain, quantitative PCASL to identify time-dependent changes in cerebral blood flow at the tissue level in the acute period following SAH. This technique has the potential to better understand changes in cerebral pathophysiology as a consequence of aneurysm rupture.

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OBJECTIVES: Coblation to create a cavity in the affected vertebral body was performed for complex fractures and/or when there was a posterior wall defect. This permitted a low-pressure injection and potentially reduces the risk of extravasation of cement into the spinal canal. METHODS: Prospective audit for outcome measures and complications allowed retrospective review of cases treated by coblation. A commercial wand inserted via a wide-bore vertebroplasty needle created a cavity before inserting cement. A visual analogue scale assessed pain and Roland Morris scoring assessed mobility. RESULTS: Thirty-two coblation procedures were performed. Primary diagnoses were myeloma, metastases, osteoporosis and trauma. Outcome measures were recorded with a 56 % success rate, 6 % no change and 32 % with mixed but mainly positive results; 6 % died before follow-up. No complications were observed; in particular no patient suffered neurological damage and none have developed subsequent fractures at the treated levels. CONCLUSIONS: This technique makes possible cementation of patients who would otherwise be unsuitable for vertebroplasty. The modest pain and disability improvement is partly due to our stringent criteria as well as fracture complexity. Further work will assess the efficacy of the method compared with conservative measures. KEY POINTS: • Treatment of vertebral compression fractures with possible posterior wall defects is controversial. • Coblation before vertebroplasty allows a low-pressure injection into fractured vertebrae. • This technique reduces risk of extravasation of cement. • No serious complication of our coblation procedures was observed.

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OBJECTIVES: Recent publications compared treatment of vertebral fractures reporting improvement in the majority but with no significant difference between the local anaesthetic and vertebroplasty groups. Potential explanations include placebo response or therapeutic response to the "control procedure". We investigated whether preliminary facet joint injection can identify those patients whose pain arises from paravertebral structures rather than the vertebral insufficiency fracture itself. METHODS: Patients referred for treatment by vertebroplasty were first offered local anaesthetic and steroid facet joint injection (FJI) at the most painful level. Those who failed to respond were offered a vertebroplasty. RESULTS: Ninety one patients referred, 16 went straight to vertebroplasty. Sixty one of 75 were initially offered FJI. Twenty one were successful; two relapsed, had further FJIs with good results; three declined treatment; 5 had temporary benefit; 1 died from unrelated causes. Of 29 who failed to respond to FJIs, 24 underwent vertebroplasty and 23 had a successful outcome. CONCLUSIONS: A third of patients technically suitable for vertebroplasty responded beneficially to FJI. In this group the pain mediator maybe one of instability and overload on the facet joints produced by adjacent wedge fracture. This protocol allows more selective and more successful vertebroplasty.

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Solitary fibrous tumour is an uncommon neoplasm that arises predominantly from within the pleura. Extrapleural manifestation of solitary fibrous tumour, particularly in the head and neck area, is extremely rare. Here, we report a solitary fibrous tumour of the face in a 40-year old woman. The tumour was removed with a radiological combined approach, with embolisation of tumour blood vessels prior to excision. Eight months following surgery, the patient is well and free of disease.

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OBJECT: Endovascular treatment of very small aneurysms poses a significant technical challenge for endovascular therapists. The authors review their experience with a series of patients who had intracranial aneurysms smaller than 3 mm in diameter. METHODS: Between 1995 and 2006, 97 very small aneurysms (defined for purposes of this study as < 3 mm in diameter) were diagnosed in 94 patients who were subsequently referred for endovascular treatment. All patients presented after subarachnoid hemorrhage, which was attributed to the very small aneurysms in 85 patients. The authors reviewed the endovascular treatment, the clinical and angiographic results of the embolization, and the complications. RESULTS: Five (5.2%) of the 97 endovascular procedures failed, and these patients underwent craniotomy and clip ligation. Of the 92 aneurysms successfully treated by coil embolization, 64 (69.6%) were completely occluded and 28 (30.4%) showed minor residual filling or neck remnants on the immediate postembolization angiogram. Complications occurred in 7 (7.2%) of 97 procedures during the treatment (3 thromboembolic events [3.1%] and 4 intraprocedural ruptures [4.1%]). Seventy-six patients were followed up angiographically; 4 (5.3%) of these 76 showed angiographic evidence of recanalization that required retreatment. The clinical outcomes for the 76 patients were also graded using the Glasgow Outcome Scale. In 61 (80.3%) cases the outcomes were graded 4 or 5, whereas in 15 (19.7%) they were graded 3. Seven patients (7.4%) died (GOS Grade 1), 2 due to procedure-related complications (intraoperative rupture) and 5 due to complications related to the presenting subarachnoid hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: Endosaccular coil embolization of very small aneurysms is associated with relatively high rates of intraprocedural rupture, especially intraoperative rupture. With the advent of more sophisticated endovascular materials (microcatheters and microguidewires, soft and ultrasoft coils, and stents) endovascular procedures have become feasible and can lead to a good angiographic outcome.

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INTRODUCTION: Thrombotic events are a common and severe complication of endovascular aneurysm treatment with significant impact on patients' outcome. This study evaluates risk factors for thrombus formation and assesses the efficacy and safety of abciximab for clot dissolution. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All patients treated with abciximab during (41 patients) or shortly after (22 patients) intracranial aneurysm coil embolisation were retrieved from the institutional database (2000 to 2007, 1,250 patients). Sixty-three patients (mean age, 55.3 years, +/- 12.8) had received either intra-arterial or intravenous abciximab. Risk factors for clot formation were assessed and the angiographic and clinical outcome evaluated. RESULTS: No aneurysm rupture occurred during or after abciximab application. The intra-procedural rate of total recanalisation was 68.3%. Thromboembolic complications were frequently found in aneurysms of the Acom complex and of the basilar artery, whilst internal carotid artery aneurysms were underrepresented. Two patients died of treatment-related intracranial haemorrhages into preexisting cerebral infarcts. Two patients developed a symptomatic groin haematoma. CONCLUSIONS: Abciximab is efficacious and safe for thrombolysis during and after endovascular intracranial aneurysm treatment in the absence of preexisting ischaemic stroke.

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OBJECT: The aim of this study was to analyze the endovascular treatment results of using the Onyx liquid embolic system for spinal intramedullary arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). METHODS: The clinical and radiological records of 17 patients with symptomatic spinal intramedullary AVMs treated exclusively by embolization with Onyx between 1999 and 2003 were retrospectively reviewed. There were 12 females and five males in the patient series (mean age 29 years). Four of these AVMs were located in the cervical spine, eight in the thoracic spine, and five in the lumbar spine. The clinical presentation of these AVMs included upper motor neuron signs and symptoms, and hemorrhage was the initial presentation in 12 patients. Neurological and functional evaluation was performed before and after treatment with Onyx in all patients. RESULTS: Thirteen patients underwent a single endovascular treatment and four patients underwent two endovascular treatments (average 1.23 sessions per patient). Intraprocedural complications occurred on two occasions without neurological consequences. The mean follow-up duration was 24.3 months. Angiographic outcomes included total AVM obliteration in six patients (37.5%), subtotal obliteration in five patients (31.25%), and partial obliteration in five patients (31.25%). Improvement in neurological and/or functional status was noted in 14 patients, resulting in an 82% rate of overall good clinical outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Embolization using the Onyx system is a promising treatment method for spinal vascular malformations, even for challenging intramedullary AVMs. Larger studies with longer follow-up durations will further enhance our knowledge on the safety and efficacy of this relatively new liquid embolic agent.

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We present a case report of a 56-year-old woman with a ruptured fusiform aneurysm of a fenestrated A(1) segment of the anterior cerebral artery (ACA). Fenestrated A(1) segments are rare and only a few case reports have been published of a saccular type aneurysm formation. To the best of our knowledge, there have been no documented cases of fusiform aneurysms in these segments.

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