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Poaceae (the grasses) includes rice, maize, wheat, and other crops, and is the most economically important angiosperm family. Poaceae is also one of the largest plant families, consisting of over 11 000 species with a global distribution that contributes to diverse ecosystems. Poaceae species are classified into 12 subfamilies, with generally strong phylogenetic support for their monophyly. However, many relationships within subfamilies, among tribes and/or subtribes, remain uncertain. To better resolve the Poaceae phylogeny, we generated 342 transcriptomic and seven genomic datasets; these were combined with other genomic and transcriptomic datasets to provide sequences for 357 Poaceae species in 231 genera, representing 45 tribes and all 12 subfamilies. Over 1200 low-copy nuclear genes were retrieved from these datasets, with several subsets obtained using additional criteria, and used for coalescent analyses to reconstruct a Poaceae phylogeny. Our results strongly support the monophyly of 11 subfamilies; however, the subfamily Puelioideae was separated into two non-sister clades, one for each of the two previously defined tribes, supporting a hypothesis that places each tribe in a separate subfamily. Molecular clock analyses estimated the crown age of Poaceae to be ∼101 million years old. Ancestral character reconstruction of C3/C4 photosynthesis supports the hypothesis of multiple independent origins of C4 photosynthesis. These origins are further supported by phylogenetic analysis of the ppc gene family that encodes the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, which suggests that members of three paralogous subclades (ppc-aL1a, ppc-aL1b, and ppc-B2) were recruited as functional C4ppc genes. This study provides valuable resources and a robust phylogenetic framework for evolutionary analyses of the grass family.

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Most plants rely on specialized root-associated microbes to obtain essential nitrogen (N), yet not much is known about the evolutionary history of the rhizosphere-plant interaction. We conducted a common garden experiment to investigate the plant root-rhizosphere microbiome association using chloridoid grasses sampled from around the world and grown from seed in a greenhouse. We sought to test whether plants that are more closely related phylogenetically have more similar root bacterial microbiomes than plants that are more distantly related. Using metagenome sequencing, we found that there is a conserved core and a variable rhizosphere bacterial microbiome across the chloridoid grasses. Additionally, phylogenetic distance among the host plant species was correlated with bacterial community composition, suggesting the plant hosts prefer specific bacterial lineages. The functional potential for N utilization across microbiomes fluctuated extensively and mirrored variation in the microbial community composition across host plants. Variation in the bacterial potential for N fixation was strongly affected by the host plants' phylogeny, whereas variation in N recycling, nitrification, and denitrification was unaffected. This study highlights the evolutionary linkage between the N fixation traits of the microbial community and the plant host and suggests that not all functional traits are equally important for plant-microbe associations.

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Chloridoideae (chloridoid grasses) are a subfamily of ca. 1700 species with high diversity in arid habitats. Until now, their evolutionary relationships have primarily been studied with DNA sequences from the chloroplast, a maternally inherited organelle. Next-generation sequencing is able to efficiently recover large numbers of nuclear loci that can then be used to estimate the species phylogeny based upon bi-parentally inherited data. We sought to test our chloroplast-based hypotheses of relationships among chloridoid species with 122 nuclear loci generated through targeted-enrichment next-generation sequencing, sometimes referred to as hyb-seq. We targeted putative single-copy housekeeping genes, as well as genes that have been implicated in traits characteristic of, or particularly labile in, chloridoids: e.g., drought and salt tolerance. We recovered ca. 70% of the targeted loci (122 of 177 loci) in all 47 species sequenced using hyb-seq. We then analyzed the nuclear loci with Bayesian and coalescent methods and the resulting phylogeny resolves relationships between the four chloridoid tribes. Several novel findings with this data were: the sister lineage to Chloridoideae is unresolved; Centropodia+Ellisochloa are excluded from Chloridoideae in phylogenetic estimates using a coalescent model; Sporobolus subtilis is more closely related to Eragrostis than to other species of Sporobolus; and Tragus is more closely related to Chloris and relatives than to a lineage of mainly New World species. Relationships in Cynodonteae in the nuclear phylogeny are quite different from chloroplast estimates, but were not robust to changes in the method of phylogenetic analysis. We tested the data signal with several partition schemes, a concatenation analysis, and tests of alternative hypotheses to assess our confidence in this new, nuclear estimate of evolutionary relationships. Our work provides markers and a framework for additional phylogenetic studies that sample more densely within chloridoid tribes. These results represent progress towards a robust classification of this important subfamily of grasses, as well as proof-of-concept for hyb-seq next-generation sequencing as a method to generate sequences for phylogenetic analyses in grasses and other plant families.

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PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Reconstructing ancestral states is a useful method to understand the pathway and patterns of character evolution and to test specific hypotheses within a phylogenetic context. Using a phylogenetic hypothesis of the subgenus Amerallium and related subgenera based on molecular data, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of leaf blade anatomical characters and identified those characters that are most congruent with phylogenetic relationships. Furthermore, we used these character histories to investigate the evolution of terete leaves and explore a possible correlation between environment and leaf anatomy in the North American species. METHODS: Sixty-seven North American and Old World species were sampled from all major infrageneric taxa and lineages for transectional leaf anatomy. To provide a phylogenetic framework for interpretation, representatives of Old World Amerallium and related subgenera were added to a published data matrix of North American taxa and ITS, ETS, trnL-F, and rpL32-trnL sequences. KEY RESULTS: Four anatomical characters, namely leaf-blade shape in transection, presence versus absence of palisade mesophyll, distribution and orientation of vascular bundles, and position of laticifer cells, were found to be congruent with phylogenetic relationships and useful diagnostic traits within North American species. Character reconstructions show that terete leaves in North American species evolved from flattened leaves via a possible transition from subterete to terete leaves. Furthermore, terete leaves possess traits that are indicative of possible adaptation to xeric environments. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study provide valuable information for understanding the evolution of leaf-blade anatomy in North American Allium species.

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PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Portulacaceae is a family with a remarkable diversity in photosynthetic pathways. This lineage not only has species with different C4 biochemistry (NADP-ME and NAD-ME types) and C3-C4 intermediacy, but also displays different leaf anatomical configurations. Here we addressed the evolutionary history of leaf anatomy and photosynthetic pathways in Portulacaceae. METHODS: Photosynthetic pathways were assessed based on leaf anatomy and carbon isotope ratios. Information on the NADP-ME and NAD-ME C4 variants was obtained from the literature. The evolutionary relationships and trait evolution were estimated under a Bayesian framework, and divergence times were calibrated using the ages obtained in a previous study. KEY RESULTS: C4 photosynthesis is the main pathway in Portulacaceae. One clade (Cryptopetala), however, includes species that have non-Kranz anatomy and C3 type isotope values, two of which are C3-C4 intermediates. The ancestral leaf anatomy for the family is uncertain. The analysis showed one origin of the C4 pathway, which was lost in the Cryptopetala clade. Nevertheless, when a second analysis was performed taking into account the limited number of species with NAD-ME and NADP-ME data, a secondary gain of the C4 pathway from a C3-C4 intermediate was inferred. CONCLUSIONS: The C4 pathway evolved ca. 23 Myr in the Portulacaceae. The number of times that the pathway evolved in the family is uncertain. The diversity of leaf anatomical types and C4 biochemical variants suggest multiple independent origins of C4 photosynthesis. Evidence for a switch from C4 to C3-C4 intermediacy supports the hypothesis that intermediates represent a distinct successful strategy.

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PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Early plant taxonomists formed hypotheses about relationships among taxa based on characters such as morphology, anatomy, phytochemistry, ecology, and geography. Modern molecular systematic methods, based on DNA sequence variation, augment early methods and provide an additional line of evidence by which to evaluate taxonomic hypotheses. In North America north of Mexico, wild onions (Allium, Amaryllidaceae) are represented by 84 native species, 81 of which belong to subgenus Amerallium. On the basis of morphology, these species have been divided into eight informal taxonomic "alliances" hypothesized to represent shared evolutionary history among species. The main aim of this research was to test the monophyly of the alliances with molecular phylogenetic methods. METHODS: We sampled 74 Amerallium species north of Mexico and two Mexican endemics and constructed a molecular phylogeny of subgenus Amerallium in North America based on predominantly noncoding sequences from two nuclear ribosomal RNA regions (ITS and ETS) and two plastid regions (trnL-F and rpL32-trnL). KEY RESULTS: Most clades are well supported in analyses of nuclear data and when nuclear and plastid data are combined. However, the plastid data alone did not produce a well-resolved or well-supported tree. Morphological alliances were sometimes congruent with groups recovered in the molecular phylogeny, but strict monophyly was observed in only three of eight alliances. CONCLUSIONS: We propose an infrageneric classification that recognizes two sections in New World Amerallium. Because there is substantial incongruence between morphological and molecular groups, we advocate retaining informal alliances rather than adopting formal subsections until further morphological and molecular analyses can be carried out.

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C(4) photosynthesis is a series of anatomical and biochemical modifications to the typical C(3) pathway that increases the productivity of plants in warm, sunny, and dry conditions. Despite its complexity, it evolved more than 62 times independently in flowering plants. However, C(4) origins are absent from most plant lineages and clustered in others, suggesting that some characteristics increase C(4) evolvability in certain phylogenetic groups. The C(4) trait has evolved 22-24 times in grasses, and all origins occurred within the PACMAD clade, whereas the similarly sized BEP clade contains only C(3) taxa. Here, multiple foliar anatomy traits of 157 species from both BEP and PACMAD clades are quantified and analyzed in a phylogenetic framework. Statistical modeling indicates that C(4) evolvability strongly increases when the proportion of vascular bundle sheath (BS) tissue is higher than 15%, which results from a combination of short distance between BS and large BS cells. A reduction in the distance between BS occurred before the split of the BEP and PACMAD clades, but a decrease in BS cell size later occurred in BEP taxa. Therefore, when environmental changes promoted C(4) evolution, suitable anatomy was present only in members of the PACMAD clade, explaining the clustering of C(4) origins in this lineage. These results show that key alterations of foliar anatomy occurring in a C(3) context and preceding the emergence of the C(4) syndrome by millions of years facilitated the repeated evolution of one of the most successful physiological innovations in angiosperm history.

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Portulaca is the only genus in Portulacaceae and has ca. 100 species distributed worldwide, mainly in the tropics and subtropics. Molecular data place the genus as one of the closest relatives of Cactaceae, but phylogenetic relationships within Portulaca are barely known. This study samples 59 species of Portulaca, 10 infraspecific taxa, and three cultivars, including multiple samples of widespread species. The sampled taxa represent all subgenera in the classifications of von Poellnitz (1934), Legrand (1958), and Geesink (1969) and come from around the world. Nuclear ITS and chloroplast ndhF, trnT-psbD intergenic spacer, and ndhA intron DNA sequences were analyzed using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods to produce a hypothesis of relationships within Portulaca. Divergence times were estimated using Hawaiian endemics for calibration, and biogeographical patterns were examined using a Bayes-DIVA approach. In addition, the evolution of chromosome numbers in the genus was investigated using probabilistic models. The analyses strongly support the monophyly of Portulaca, with an age of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of 23 Myr. Within Portulaca are two major lineages: the OL clade (comprising opposite-leaved species) distributed in Africa, Asia, and Australia, and the AL clade (comprising alternate to subopposite-leaved species), which is more widespread and originated in the New World. Sedopsis, a genus sometimes recognized as distinct from Portulaca based on a long corolla tube, is nested within the OL clade and does not merit taxonomic recognition. Samples of Portulaca grandiflora, Portulaca halimoides, and Portulaca oleracea were found to be non-monophyletic. It is hypothesized that the ancestral distribution area of Portulaca included southern hemisphere continents and Asia. The OL clade remained restricted to the Old World (except Portulaca quadrifida, a pantropical weed), while the AL clade, with a South American origin, was able to disperse multiple times to other continents. The base chromosome number for Portulaca is inferred to be x=9, although the analysis was primarily based on the available data for the AL clade. A number of chromosome number change events (polyploidization, demi-polyploidization, gain, and loss) were shown to have occurred in the genus, especially within the Oleracea clade.

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PREMISE: The cosmopolitan and ecologically important grass subfamily Aristidoideae comprises the widely distributed genus Aristida (250-290 species), Stipagrostis (50 species, with an African-Asian distribution), and Sartidia (five species, Africa and Madagascar). The subfamily includes species with C(3) (Sartidia and a single species of Aristida) and C(4) photosynthetic pathways. Rigorous phylogenetic reconstructions of species relationships are required to explain the biogeographic, physiological, and ecological diversity within this subfamily. METHODS: Chloroplast (trnL-F, rpl16) and nuclear (ITS) DNA sequences were obtained from 198 accessions, and the combined data set was subjected to parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference analyses. Dating analyses calibrated using previously published node ages were conducted to determine the ages of major radiations. RESULTS: The C(3) Sartidia is sister to a monophyletic Stipagrostis, and the (Sartidia, Stipagrostis) clade is sister to Aristida. Within Aristida, the only known C(3) species, A. longifolia, is sister to the remainder of the genus. Infrageneric sections of Aristida were not supported, and there are no synapomorphic morphological characters for the clades retrieved. Within Aristida, monophyletic Australian, African, North American, and South American clades are retrieved. CONCLUSIONS: The subfamily dates back to the late Miocene, with the major lineages present by the Pliocene. With one exception, regional clades of Aristida evolved in the Pliocene. The C(3) photosynthetic pathway is hypothesized to be the pleisomorphic condition for the subfamily, wherein two independent C(4) pathways (each with unique anatomical and genetic features) evolved, one within Aristida and one in Stipagrostis.

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PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Phylogenetic relationships were investigated among the eight families (Anacampserotaceae, Basellaceae, Cactaceae, Didiereaceae, Halophytaceae, Montiaceae, Portulacaceae, Talinaceae) that form suborder Cactineae (= Portulacineae) of the Caryophyllales. In addition, photosynthesis diversification and historical biogeography were addressed. • METHODS: Chloroplast DNA sequences, mostly noncoding, were used to estimate the phylogeny. Divergence times were calibrated using two Hawaiian Portulaca species, due to the lack of an unequivocal fossil record for Cactineae. Photosynthetic pathways were determined from carbon isotope ratios (δ(13)C) and leaf anatomy. • KEY RESULTS: Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses were consistent with previous studies in that the suborder, almost all families, and the ACPT clade (Anacampserotaceae, Cactaceae, Portulacaceae, Talinaceae) were strongly supported as monophyletic; however, relationships among families remain uncertain. The age of Cactineae was estimated to be 18.8 Myr. Leaf anatomy and δ(13)C and were congruent in most cases, and inconsistencies between these pointed to photosynthetic intermediates. Reconstruction of photosynthesis diversification showed C(3) to be the ancestral pathway, a shift to C(4) in Portulacaceae, and five independent origins of Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). Cactineae were inferred to have originated in the New World. • CONCLUSIONS: Although the C(3) pathway is inferred as the ancestral state in Cactineae, some CAM activity has been reported in the literature in almost every family of the suborder, leaving open the possibility that CAM may have one origin in the group. Incongruence among loci could be due to internal short branches, which possibly represent rapid radiations in response to increasing aridity in the Miocene.

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Only a small percentage of plant species undergo C(4) photosynthesis. Despite its rarity, the C(4) pathway has evolved numerous times from C(3) ancestors, with as many as 18 independent origins in grasses alone. We report non-Kranz (C(3)) anatomy in Aristida longifolia, a species in a genus of ca. 300 species previously thought to possess only Kranz (C(4)) anatomy. Leaf blade transections of A. longifolia show widely spaced vascular bundles, nonradiate chlorenchyma, and few or no chloroplasts in cells of the sheaths surrounding the vascular bundle, all features indicative of C(3) photosynthesis. Carbon isotope ratios range from -27.68 to -29.71%, likewise indicative of C(3) photosynthesis. We also reconstruct the phylogeny of Aristidoideae, comprising Aristida, Sartidia (C(3)), and Stipagrostis (C(4)), using a sample of 11 species, including A. longifolia, and DNA sequences of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region and the chloroplast rpl16 intron and trnL-trnF region. Sartidia and Stipagrostis resolve as sisters, and sister to this clade is Aristida. Aristida longifolia resolves as sister to the remaining species in the genus. C(3) photosynthesis is hypothesized to be ancestral in Aristidoideae, which means the C(4) pathway evolved twice in the subfamily-in Stipagrostis and early in the diversification of the Aristida clade.

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Unisexual flowers have evolved repeatedly in the angiosperms. In Poaceae, multiple transitions from bisexual to unisexual flowers are hypothesized. There appear to be at least three distinct developmental mechanisms for unisexual flower formation as found in members of three subfamilies (Ehrhartoideae, Panicoideae, Pharoideae). In this study, unisexual flower development is described for the first time in subfamily Chloridoideae, as exemplified by Bouteloua dimorpha. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and anatomy were used to characterize the development of male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers, spikelets, and inflorescences. We found the developmental pathway for staminate flowers in B. dimorpha to be distinct from that described in the other three subfamilies, showing gynoecial arrest occurs at a different stage with possible loss of some cellular contents. However, pistillate flowers of B. dimorpha had some similarity to those described in other unisexual-flowered grasses, with filament and anther differentiation in abortive stamens. Comparing our findings with previous reports, unisexual flowers seem to have evolved independently in the four examined grass subfamilies. This analysis suggests the action of different genetic mechanisms, which are consistent with previous observations that floral unisexuality is a homoplasious condition in angiosperms.

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Within the Poaceae, inflorescence diversification and its bearing on phylogeny and evolution are exceedingly complex. We used phylogenetic information of the "finger millet clade," a group of grasses with digitate inflorescences, to study the inflorescence diversification. This clade appears monophyletic in the morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Three well-supported clades are shown in our cpDNA-derived phylogeny, with clades I and III consisting of species of Chloris and Microchloa, respectively, and clade II including species of Cynodon, Dactyloctenium, and Eleusine. Variation appears at different times throughout development. Changes involving primordium number and arrangement occur very early, changes involving duration of primordium activity occur much later. Characters derived from the comparison of developmental sequences were optimized onto the most parsimonious tree. The developmental characters were congruent with the molecular phylogeny. Two developmental characters may not be homologous in the Chloris subclade and the Cynodon subclade.