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This study investigates the effect of palladium (Pd) form on the electrochemical degradation of chlorobenzene in groundwater by palladium-catalyzed electro-Fenton (EF) reaction. In batch and flow-through column reactors, EF was initiated via in-situ electrochemical formation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) supported by Pd on alumina powder or by palladized polyacrylic acid (PAA) in a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane (Pd-PVDF/PAA). In a mixed batch reactor containing 10 mg L-1 Fe2+, 2 g L-1 of catalyst in powder form (1% Pd, 20 mg L-1 of Pd) and an initial pH of 3, chlorobenzene was degraded under 120 mA current following a first-order decay rate showing 96% removal within 60 min. Under the same conditions, a rotating Pd-PVDF/PAA disk produced 88% of chlorobenzene degradation. In the column experiment with automatic pH adjustment, 71% of chlorobenzene was removed within 120 min with 10 mg L-1 Fe2+, and 2 g L-1 catalyst in pellet form (0.5% Pd, 10 mg L-1 of Pd) under 60 mA. The EF reaction can be achieved under flow, without external pH adjustment and H2O2 addition, and can be applied for in-situ groundwater treatment. Furthermore, the rotating PVDF-PAA membrane with immobilized Pd-catalyst showed an effective and low maintenance option for employing Pd catalyst for water treatment.

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Removal of aqueous selenate by iron electrolysis is investigated using sand-packed column experiments under a flowing condition. An iron anode generates ferrous ions, while cathode produces hydroxide, thus producing ferrous hydroxide capable of reducing selenate to elemental selenium. Additionally, siderite could reduce selenate or selenite to elemental selenium. The removal rate of selenate is proportional to the contact time and the yield of ferrous hydroxide or ferrous carbonate. At a sequence of anode-cathode, the transformation of selenate mostly occurs in the zone after cathode. An operation of 48 h electrolysis finally transforms 82.2% of selenate at 0.2 mM of initial concentration, 1.8 m/day of seepage velocity and 1.26 mA/cm(2) of current density. A longer reactive zone after cathode slightly increases the reduction of selenate to 84.1%, in comparison with 82.2% of a shorter residence time in the reactive zone after cathode. With shorter electrode spacing (approximately 27% shorter), the transformation rate of selenate decreased to 73.5%; however, the specific electrical energy consumption was saved by 78%. A sequence of cathode-anode was ineffective in removing selenate because of the lack of reducing agent in the column. The results indicate that the electrochemical system might be effective in removing selenate in a single well.

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Removal of selenate from solution is investigated in batch electrochemical systems using reactive iron anodes and copper plate cathode in a bicarbonate medium. Iron anodes produce ferrous hydroxide, which is a major factor in the removal of selenate from solution. Iron anodes also generate a significant decrease in the oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of the solution because it prevents generation of oxygen gas at the anode by electrolysis. The removal rates varied from 45.1 to 97.4%, depending on current density and selenate concentration. The transformation of selenate by the process is modeled based on a heterogeneous reaction coupled with electrochemical generation of ferrous and hydroxide. The rates are optimized at lower initial concentrations, higher electrical currents, and the presence of anions. Presence of dissolved oxygen does not cause any significant effects the removal of selenate.

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A novel reactive electrochemical flow system consisting of an iron anode and a porous cathode is proposed for the remediation of mixture of contaminants in groundwater. The system consists of a series of sequentially arranged electrodes, a perforated iron anode, a porous copper cathode followed by a mesh-type mixed metal oxide anode. The iron anode generates ferrous species and a chemically reducing environment, the porous cathode provides a reactive electrochemically reducing barrier, and the inert anode provides protons and oxygen to neutralize the system. The redox conditions of the electrolyte flowing through this system can be regulated by controlling the distribution of the electric current. Column experiments are conducted to evaluate the process and study the variables. The electrochemical reduction on a copper foam cathode produced an electrode-based reductive potential capable of reducing TCE and nitrate. Rational electrodes arrangement, longer residence time of electrolytes and higher surface area of the foam electrode improve the reductive transformation of TCE. More than 82.2% TCE removal efficiency is achieved for the case of low influent concentration (<7.5 mg/L) and high current (>45 mA). The ferrous species produced from the iron anode not only enhance the transformation of TCE on the cathode, but also facilitates transformation of other contaminants including dichromate, selenate and arsenite. Removal efficiencies greater than 80% are achieved for these contaminants in flowing contaminated water. The overall system, comprising the electrode-based and electrolyte-based barriers, can be engineered as a versatile and integrated remedial method for a relatively wide spectrum of contaminants and their mixtures.

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The performance of electrochemical remediation methods could be optimized by controlling the physicochemical conditions of the electrochemical redox system. The effects of anode type (reactive or inert), current density and electrolyte composition on the temporal changes in pH and redox potential of the electrolyte were evaluated in divided and mixed electrolytes. Two types of electrodes were used: iron as a reactive electrode and mixed metal oxide coated titanium (MMO) as an inert electrode. Electric currents of 15, 30, 45 and 60 mA (37.5 mA L(-1), 75 mA L(-1), 112.5 mA L(-1) and 150 mA L(-1)) were applied. Solutions of NaCl, Na(2)SO(4) and NaHCO(3) were selected to mimic different wastewater or groundwater compositions. Iron anodes resulted in highly reducing electrolyte conditions compared to inert anodes. Electrolyte pH was dependent on electrode type, electrolyte composition and current density. The pH of mixed-electrolyte was stable when MMO electrodes were used. When iron electrodes were used, the pH of electrolyte with relatively low current density (37.5 mA L(-1)) did not show significant changes but the pH increased sharply for relatively high current density (150 mA L(-1)). Sulfate solution showed more basic and relatively more reducing electrolyte conditions compared to bicarbonate and chloride solution. The study shows that a highly reducing environment could be achieved using iron anodes in divided or mixed electrolytes and the pH and redox potential could be optimized using appropriate current and polarity reversal.

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Successful bioremediation of contaminated soils is controlled by the ability to deliver bioremediation additives, such as bacteria and/or nutrients, to the contaminated zone. Because hydraulic advection is not practical for delivery in clays, electrokinetic (EK) injection is an alternative for efficient and uniform delivery of bioremediation additive into low-permeability soil and heterogeneous deposits. EK-enhanced bioaugmentation for remediation of clays contaminated with chlorinated solvents is evaluated. Dehalococcoides (Dhc) bacterial strain and lactate ions are uniformly injected in contaminated clay and complete dechlorination of chlorinated ethene is observed in laboratory experiments. The injected bacteria can survive, grow, and promote effective dechlorination under EK conditions and after EK application. The distribution of Dhc within the clay suggests that electrokinetic transport of Dhc is primarily driven by electroosmosis. In addition to biodegradation due to bioaugmentation of Dhc, an EK-driven transport of chlorinated ethenes is observed in the clay, which accelerates cleanup of chlorinated ethenes from the anode side. Compared with conventional advection-based delivery, EK injection is significantly more effective for establishing microbial reductive dechlorination capacity in low-permeability soils.

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Electrochemical dechlorination of trichloroethylene (TCE) in aqueous solution is investigated in a closed, liquid-recirculation system. The anodic reaction of cast iron generates ferrous species, creating a chemically reducing electrolyte (negative ORP value). The reduction of TCE on the cathode surface is enhanced under this reducing electrolyte because of the absence of electron competition. In the presence of the iron anode, the performances of different cathodes are compared in a recirculated electrolysis system. The copper foam shows superior capability for dechlorination of aqueous TCE. Electrolysis by cast iron anode and copper foam cathode is further optimized though a multivariable experimental design and analysis. The conductivity of the electrolyte is identified as an important factor for both final elimination efficiency (FEE) of TCE and specific energy consumption. The copper foam electrode exhibits high TCE elimination efficiency in a wide range of initial TCE concentration. Under coulostatic conditions, the optimal conditions to achieve the highest FEE are 9.525 mm thick copper foam electrode, 40 mA current and 0.042 mol L(-1) Na(2)SO(4). This novel electrolysis system is proposed to remediate groundwater contaminated by chlorinated organic solvents, or as an improved iron electrocoagulation process capable of treating the wastewater co-contaminated with chlorinated compounds.

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The role of iron anode on electrochemical dechlorination of aqueous trichloroethylene (TCE) is evaluated using batch mixed-electrolyte experiments. A significantly higher dechlorination rate, up to 99%, is reported when iron anode and copper foam cathodes are used. In contrast to the oxygen-releasing inert anode, the cast iron anode generates ferrous species, which regulate the electrolyte to a reducing condition (low ORP value) and favor the reduction of TCE. The main products of TCE electrochemical reduction on copper foam cathode include ethene and ethane. The ratio of these two hydrocarbons gases varied with the electrolyte ORP condition and current density as more ethane gas generates at more reducing electrolyte condition and at higher current condition. A pseudofirst-order model is used to describe the degradation of TCE; the first-order rate constant (k) increases with the current applied but exhibits a negative relation with initial concentration. Depending on the current, electrolysis by iron anode causes a reduction in the ORP and an increase in the pH of the mixed electrolyte. Enhanced reaction rates in this investigation indicate that the electrochemical reduction using copper foam and iron anode may be a promising process for remediation of groundwater contaminated with chlorinated organic compounds.

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