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As primary flavonoids extracted from citrus fruits, hesperidin has been attracting attention widely for its capacity to act as antioxidants that are able to scavenge free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many factors have made oxidative stress a risk factor for the occurrence of intestinal barrier injury, which is a serious health threat to human beings. However, little data are available regarding the underlying mechanism of hesperidin alleviating intestinal injury under oxidative stress. Recently, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) mitochondria contact sites (ERMCSs) have aroused increasing concerns among scholars, which participate in mitochondrial dynamics and Ca2+ transport. In our experiment, 24 piglets were randomly divided into 4 groups. Piglets in the diquat group and hesperidin + diquat group received an intraperitoneal injection of diquat (10 mg/kg), while piglets in the hesperidin group and hesperidin + diquat group received hesperidin (300 mg/kg) with feed. The results indicated that hesperidin alleviated growth restriction and intestinal barrier injury in piglets compared with the diquat group. Hesperidin ameliorated oxidative stress and restored antioxidant capacity under diquat exposure. The mitochondrial dysfunction was markedly alleviated via hesperidin versus diquat group. Meanwhile, hesperidin alleviated ER stress and downregulated the PERK pathway. Furthermore, hesperidin prevented the disorder of ERMCSs by downregulating the level of ERMCS proteins, decreasing the percentage of mitochondria with ERMCSs/total mitochondria and the ratio of ERMCSs length/mitochondrial perimeter. These results suggested hesperidin could alleviate ERMCS disorder and prevent mitochondrial dysfunction, which subsequently decreased ROS production and alleviated intestinal barrier injury of piglets under oxidative stress.

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Many factors induced by environmental toxicants have made oxidative stress a risk factor for the intestinal barrier injury and growth restriction, which is serious health threat for human and livestock and induces significant economic loss. It is well-known that diquat-induced oxidative stress is implicated in the intestinal barrier injury. Although some studies have shown that mitochondria are the primary target organelle of diquat, the underlying mechanism remains incompletely understood. Recently, mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs) have aroused increasing concerns among scholars, which participate in mitochondrial dynamics and signal transduction. In this study, we investigated whether MAMs involved in intestinal barrier injury and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by diquat-induced oxidative stress in piglets and porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2 cells). The results showed that diquat induced growth restriction and impaired intestinal barrier. The mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) was increased and mitochondrial membrane potential was decreased following diquat exposure. The ultrastructure of mitochondria and MAMs was also disturbed. Meanwhile, diquat upregulated endoplasmic reticulum stress marker protein and activated PERK pathway. Furthermore, loosening MAMs alleviated intestinal barrier injury, decrease of antioxidant enzyme activity and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by diquat in IPEC-J2 cells, while tightening MAMs exacerbated diquat-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. These results suggested that MAMs may be associated with the intestinal barrier injury and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by diquat in the jejunum of piglets.

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Quercetin (Que) is a flavonol compound found in plants, which has a variety of biological activities. Necroptosis, a special form of programmed cell death, plays a vital role in the development of many gastrointestinal diseases. This study aimed to explore whether Que could attenuate the intestinal injury and barrier dysfunction of piglets after deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure through modulating the necroptosis signaling pathway. Firstly, twenty-four weaned piglets were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design and the main factors, including Que (basal diet or diet supplemented with 100 mg/kg Que) and DON exposure (control feed or feed contaminated with 4 mg/kg DON). After feeding for 21 d, piglets were killed for samples. Next, the intestinal porcine epithelial cell line (IPEC-1) was pretreated with or without Que (10 µmol/mL) in the presence or absence of a DON challenge (0.5 µg/mL). Dietary Que increased the body weight, average daily gain, and average daily feed intake (p < 0.05) through the trial. Que supplementation improved the villus height, and enhanced the intestinal barrier function (p < 0.05) indicated by the higher protein expression of occludin and claudin-1 (p < 0.05) in the jejunum of the weaned piglets after DON exposure. Dietary Que also down-regulated the protein abundance of total receptor interacting protein kinase 1 (t-RIP1), phosphorylated RIP1 (p-RIP1), p-RIP3, total mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (t-MLKL), and p-MLKL (p < 0.05) in piglets after DON exposure. Moreover, Que pretreatment increased the cell viability and decreased the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity (p < 0.05) in the supernatant of IPEC-1 cells after DON challenge. Que treatment also improved the epithelial barrier function indicated by a higher transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) (p < 0.001), lower fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran (FD4) flux (p < 0.001), and better distribution of occludin and claudin-1 (p < 0.05) after DON challenge. Additionally, pretreatment with Que also inhibited the protein abundance of t-RIP1, p-RIP1, t-RIP3, p-RIP3, t-MLKL, and p-MLKL (p < 0.05) in IPEC-1 cells after DON challenge. In general, our data suggest that Que can ameliorate DON-induced intestinal injury and barrier dysfunction associated with suppressing the necroptosis signaling pathway.

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The interplay between cell apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has garnered increasing attention. Nevertheless, the precise involvement of the unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling in the apoptosis of porcine macrophage cells induced by Deoxynivalenol (DON) remains enigmatic. In this study, we revealed that exposure to 2 µM DON resulted in a substantial decline in cell viability, concomitant with the initiation of cell apoptosis and the halting of the G1 phase cell cycle in the porcine alveolar macrophage line 3D4/21. Transcriptomic analysis of DON-exposed cells showed distinct expression patterns in 3104 genes, with notable upregulation of ER stress-related genes, including IRE1, CHOP, XBP1 and JNK. Our subsequent validation via qPCR and Western blot analyses confirmed the attenuation of GRP78 and BCL-2, coupled with the upregulation of IRE1, CHOP, JNK, p-JNK, and Bax in DON-induced cells, indicating the instigation of ER stress-associated apoptosis by DON. The addition of 5 mM 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA), an ER stress inhibitor, decreased levels of CHOP, IRE1, JNK, p-JNK, and Bax, while increasing levels of GRP78 and Bcl-2, suggesting that 4-PBA alleviated DON-induced ER stress and apoptosis. Overall, our findings provide new insights into DON-induced ER stress via the IRE1/JNK/CHOP pathway, leading to subsequent cellular apoptosis.

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Necroptosis, an actively researched form of programmed cell death closely related to the inflammatory response, is important in a variety of disorders and diseases. However, the relationship between necroptosis and muscle protein degradation in cachexia is rarely reported. This study aimed to elucidate whether necroptosis played a crucial role in muscle protein degradation in a cachexia model of weaned piglets induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In Experiment 1, the piglets were intraperitoneally injected with LPS to construct the cachexia model, and sacrificed at different time points after LPS injection (1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h). In Experiment 2, necrostatin-1 (Nec-1), a necroptosis blocker, was pretreated in piglets before the injection of LPS to inhibit the occurrence of necroptosis. Blood and longissimus dorsi muscle samples were collected for further analysis. In the piglet model with LPS-induced cachexia, the morphological and ultrastructural damage, and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1ß, and IL-6 were dynamically elicited in longissimus dorsi muscle. Further, protein concentration and protein/DNA ratio were dynamically decreased, and protein degradation signaling pathway, containing serine/threonine kinase (Akt), Forkhead box O (FOXO), muscular atrophy F-box (MAFbx), and muscle ring finger protein 1 (MuRF1), was dynamically activated in piglets after LPS challenge. Moreover, mRNA and protein expression of necroptosis signals including receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIP)1, RIP3, and mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL), were time-independently upregulated. Subsequently, when Nec-1 was used to inhibit necroptosis, the morphological damage, the increase in expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, the reduction in protein content and protein/DNA ratio, and the activation of the protein degradation signaling pathway were alleviated. These results provide the first evidence that necroptosis mediates muscle protein degradation in cachexia by LPS challenge.

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One characteristic of tumor-associated CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) is the high expression of tumor necrosis factor receptor type II (TNFR2), a receptor that mediates the decisive effect of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in the activation and expansion of Tregs. There is increasing evidence that inhibition of TNFR2 can enhance anti-tumor immune responses. Therefore, we screened Chinese herbal extracts for their capacity to block TNF-TNFR2 interaction. The results showed that the treatment with a Chinese herb extract could inhibit TNFR2-induced biological responses in vitro, including the proliferation of TNFR2+ Tregs. Our subsequent study led to the identification of flavonoid compound scutellarin was responsible for the activity. Our results showed that scutellarin is able to disrupt the interaction of TNF-TNFR2 and inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, a down-stream signaling component of TNFR2. Importantly, in vivo scutellarin treatment markedly enhanced the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy with CpG oligodeoxynucleotide in mouse CT26 colon cancer model. This effect of scutellarin was associated with the reduction of the number of tumor-infiltrating TNFR2-expressing Tregs and increased tumor infiltration of interferon-γ-producing CD8+ T cells. Our result also suggests that scutellarin or its analogs may be used as an adjuvant to enhance the anti-tumor effect of immunotherapeutic agent by eliminating TNFR2+ Treg activity.

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There is compelling evidence that CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are indispensable in the inhibition of autoimmune inflammatory responses, including psoriasis. Recently, we showed that systemically treatment with tetrandrine (TET), a two-pore channel inhibitor identified from the Chinese herb Stephania tetrandra S. Moor, could promote the proliferative expansion of Tregs in mice through stimulation of TNF-TNFR2 interaction. We thus hypothesized that topical administration of TET might also expand Tregs and consequently inhibit psoriasis. To this end, we developed a TET nanoemulsion and examined its effect on the expansion of Tregs after topical administration on mouse psoriasis induced by imiquimod. The result of our experiment showed that topical treatment with TET nanoemulsion markedly increased the proportion and number of Tregs in the spleen, as well as TNFR2 and Ki-67 expression by Tregs, in WT and TNFR1 KO mice, but not in TNFR2 KO mice. Consequently, TET nanoemulsion potently inhibited IL-17-expressing cells in the spleen and lymph nodes of imiquimod-treated WT mice, accompanied by decreased serum levels of IL-17A, INF-γ, and TNF and their mRNA levels in the flamed lesion. Importantly, TET nanoemulsion treatment markedly inhibited the development of psoriasis-like disease in WT and TNFR1 KO mice but not in TNFR2 KO mice. Therefore, our study indicates that the topical administration of TET could also stimulate the expansion of Tregs through the TNF-TNFR2 pathway. This effect of TET and its analogs may be useful in the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases such as psoriasis.

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Psoriasis is an autoimmune skin disease in which dendritic cells (DCs) trigger the progression of psoriasis by complex interactions with keratinocytes and other immune cells. In the present study, we aimed to load celastrol, an anti-inflammatory ingredient isolated from Chinese herbs, on mannosylated liposomes to enhance DC uptake as well as to induce DC tolerance in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like mouse model. Mannose was grafted onto liposomes to target mannose receptors on DCs. The results demonstrated that compared with unmodified liposomes, DCs preferred to take up more fluorescence-labeled mannosylated liposomes. After loading celastrol into mannose-modified liposomes, they effectively inhibited the expression of maturation markers, including CD80, CD86 and MHC-II, on DCs both in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, after intradermal injection with a microneedle, celastrol-loaded mannose-modified liposomes (CEL-MAN-LPs) achieved a superior therapeutic effect compared with free drug and celastrol-loaded unmodified liposomes in the psoriasis mouse model in terms of the psoriasis area and severity index, histology evaluation, spleen weight, and expression of inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, our results clearly revealed that CEL-MAN-LPs was an effective formulation for psoriasis treatment and suggested that this treatment has the potential to be applied to other inflammatory diseases triggered by activated DCs.

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Objectives: Topical administration of Tacrolimus (TAC) is efective in the treatment of psoriasis in human patients and in mouse models. Previously, we showed that, though promoting the proliferative expansion of CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), TNFR2 was protective in mouse psoriasis model. We thus examined the role of TNFR2 signal in the efect of TAC in the treatment of mouse psoriasis. Methods: To this end, psoriasis was induced in WT, or TNFR1 KO, or TNFR2 KO mice, and the psoriatic mice were treated with or without IMQ. Results: The results showed that TAC treatment potently inhibited the development of psoriasis in WT and TNFR1 KO mice, but not in TNFR2 KO mice. However, the treatment of TAC failed to induce the expansion of Tregs in psoriatic mice. In addition to playing a decisive role in the activation of Tregs, TNFR2 stimulates the generation and activation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). This led us to found that the topical treatment with TAC markedly increased the number of MDSCs in the spleen of WT and TNFR1 KO mice, but not in TNFR2 KO mice. Consequently, TAC potently decreased serum levels of IL-17A, INF-γ, and TNF and their mRNA levels in the inflamed skin lesion. Conclusion: Therefore, our study for the first time found that the therapeutic efect of TAC in psoriasis is associated with the expansion of MDSCs in a TNFR2-dependent manner.

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Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of psoriasis and anti-TNF therapeutics are used in the treatment of psoriasis in the clinic. However, considerable proportion of patients fail to respond to anti-TNF treatment. Furthermore, anti-TNF therapy induces de novo development of psoriasis in some patients with other type of autoimmune disorders. Therefore, further understanding of the role of TNF-TNFR signaling in pathogenesis of psoriasis remains a critical to devise safer and more effective treatment. In this study, it is shown that in imiquimod-induced mouse psoriasis model, TNF receptor type 1 (TNFR1) deficiency inhibited the development of skin diseases. In sharp contrast, TNF receptor type 2 (TNFR2) deficiency led to more severe psoriasis that was associated with increased Th1 and Th17 responses and reduced number of CD4+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs). Importantly, adoptive transfer of WT Tregs was able to attenuate inflammatory responses in imiquimod-treated TNFR2-/- mice, suggestive of a role of malfunctioned Tregs in mice deficient in TNFR2. RNA sequencing data revealed that Tregs deficient in TNFR2 exhibited down-regulation of different biological processes linked to proliferative expansion. Taken together, our study clearly indicated that TNFR1 was pathogenic in mouse psoriasis. In contrast, through boosting the proliferative expansion of Tregs, TNFR2 was protective in this model. The data thus suggest that TNFR1-specific antagonist or TNFR2-specific agonist may be useful in the treatment of patients with psoriasis.

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Psoriasis is an autoimmune inflammatory disease, where dendritic cells (DCs) play an important role in its pathogenesis. In our previous work, we have demonstrated that topical delivery of curcumin-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) could treat Imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like mice. The objective of this study is to further elucidate biofate of PLGA NPs after intradermal delivery including DCs uptake, and their further trafficking in psoriasis-like mice model by using fluorescence probes. Two-sized DiO/DiI-loaded PLGA NPs of 50 ± 4.9 nm (S-NPs) and 226 ± 7.8 nm (L-NPs) were fabricated, respectively. In vitro cellular uptake results showed that NPs could be internalized into DCs with intact form, and DCs preferred to uptake larger NPs. Consistently, in vivo study showed that L-NPs were more captured by DCs and NPs were firstly transported to skin-draining lymph nodes (SDLN), then to spleens after 8 h injection, whereas more S-NPs were transported into SDLN and spleens. Moreover, FRET imaging showed more structurally intact L-NPs distributed in skins and lymph nodes. In conclusion, particle size can affect the uptake and trafficking of NPs by DCs in skin and lymphoid system, which needs to be considered in NPs tailing to treat inflammatory skin disease like psoriasis.

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CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are pivotal for the inhibition of autoimmune inflammatory responses. One way to therapeutically harness the immunosuppressive actions of Tregs is to stimulate the proliferative expansion of TNFR2-expressing CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs via transmembrane TNF (tmTNF). Here, we report that two-pore channel (TPC) inhibitors markedly enhance tmTNF expression on antigen-presenting cells. Furthermore, injection of TPC inhibitors including tetrandrine, or TPC-specific siRNAs in mice, increases the number of Tregs in a tmTNF/TNFR2-dependent manner. In a mouse colitis model, inhibition of TPCs by tetrandrine markedly attenuates colon inflammation by expansion of Tregs Mechanistically, we show that TPC inhibitors enhance tmTNF levels by disrupting surface expression of TNF-α-converting enzyme by regulating vesicle trafficking. These results suggest that the therapeutic potential of TPC inhibitors is mediated by expansion of TNFR2-expressing Tregs and elucidate the basis of clinical use in the treatment of autoimmune and other inflammatory diseases.

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Oxidative stress can lead to intestinal cell injury as well as the induction of inflammation. It is not clear whether inflammation is an important factor leading to cell injury caused by oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of inflammation in intestinal injury caused by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Our results revealed that H2O2 stimulation significantly decreased the viability of intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-1), increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, and disrupted the distribution of the tight junction protein claudin-1. H2O2 significantly increased the mRNA expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). H2O2 stimulation also led to increased phosphorylation of p38 and jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p65 NF-κB protein translocation into the nucleus of IPEC-1 cells. Cells treated with the NF-κB inhibitor (BAY11-7082), the p38 inhibitor (SB202190), or the JNK inhibitor (PD98059) significantly decreased mRNA and protein expression of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. However, treatment with mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) or NF-κB inhibitors did not prevent the damage effect on cell viability, LDH activity, or the distribution of claudin-1 in cells challenged with H2O2. In summary, our data demonstrate that activation of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways can contribute to the inflammatory response, but not cell injury, in IPEC-1 cells challenged with H2O2.

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This study was conducted to investigate whether medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury by down-regulating necroptotic and inflammatory signaling pathways. A total of 24 pigs were randomly allotted to four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design including diet (0 and 4% MCTs) and immunological challenge (saline and LPS). After three weeks of feeding with or without 4% MCTs, pigs were challenged with saline or LPS. MCTs led to a significant increase in eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid and total (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations. MCTs attenuated LPS-induced liver injury as indicated by an improvement in liver histomorphology and ultrastructural morphology of hepatocytes, a reduction in serum alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase activities as well as an increase in claudin-1 protein expression. In addition, MCTs also reduced serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6 concentrations, liver TNF-α and IL-1ß mRNA expression and protein concentrations and enhanced liver heat shock protein 70 protein expression in LPS-challenged pigs. Moreover, MCTs decreased mRNA expression of receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase (RIP) 3, mixed-lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) and phosphoglycerate mutase 5 and inhibited MLKL phosphorylation in the liver. Finally, MCTs decreased liver mRNA expression of toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain protein (NOD) 1 and multiple downstream signaling molecules. MCTs also suppressed LPS-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and increased extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 phosphorylation in the liver. These results indicated that MCTs are capable of attenuating LPS-induced liver damage by suppressing hepatic necroptotic (RIP1/RIP3/MLKL) and inflammatory (TLR4/NOD1/p38 MAPK) signaling pathways.

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There is now compelling evidence that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) preferentially activates and expands CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) through TNF receptor type II (TNFR2). However, it remains unclear which signaling transduction pathway(s) of TNFR2 is required for the stimulation of Tregs. Previously, it was shown that the interaction of TNF-TNFR2 resulted in the activation of a number of signaling pathways, including p38 MAPK, NF-κB, in T cells. We thus examined the role of p38 MAPK and NF-κB in TNF-mediated activation of Tregs, by using specific small molecule inhibitors. The results show that treatment with specific p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580, rather than NF-κB inhibitors (Sulfasalazine and Bay 11-7082), abrogated TNF-induced expansion of Tregs in vitro. Furthermore, upregulation of TNFR2 and Foxp3 expression in Tregs by TNF was also markedly inhibited by SB203580. The proliferative expansion and the upregulation of TNFR2 expression on Tregs in LPS-treated mice were mediated by TNF-TNFR2 interaction, as shown by our previous study. The expansion of Tregs in LPS-treated mice were also markedly inhibited by in vivo treatment with SB203580. Taken together, our data clearly indicate that the activation of p38 MAPK is attributable to TNF/TNFR2-mediated activation and proliferative expansion of Tregs. Our results also suggest that targeting of p38 MAPK by pharmacological agent may represent a novel strategy to up- or downregulation of Treg activity for therapeutic purposes.

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This study was conducted to evaluate whether medium-chain TAG (MCT) could alleviate Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced intestinal injury by regulating intestinal epithelial inflammatory response, as well as necroptosis. A total of twenty-four weanling piglets were randomly allotted to one of four treatments in a 2×2 factorial arrangement including diet type (5 % maize oil v. 4 % MCT+1 % maize oil) and immune stress (saline v. E. coli LPS). The piglets were fed diets containing maize oil or MCT for 21 d. On 21 d, piglets were injected intraperitoneally with saline or LPS. The blood and intestinal samples were collected at 4 h post injection. Supplementation with MCT improved intestinal morphology, digestive and barrier function, indicated by increased jejunal villus height, increased jejunal and ileal disaccharidases (sucrase and maltase) activities, as well as enhanced protein expression of claudin-1. Furthermore, the protein expression of heat-shock protein 70 in jejunum and the concentration of TNF-α in plasma were reduced in the piglets fed diets supplemented with MCT. In addition, MCT down-regulated the mRNA expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain proteins (NOD) signalling-related genes in jejunum and ileum. Finally, MCT inhibited jejunal and ileal enterocyte necroptosis indicated by suppressed mRNA expression of the receptor-interacting protein 3 and mixed-lineage kinase domain-like protein. These results indicate that MCT supplementation may be closely related to inhibition of TLR4, NOD and necroptosis signalling pathways and concomitant improvement of intestinal integrity under an inflammatory condition.

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Asparagine (Asn), an activator of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), stimulates cell proliferation in intestinal epithelial cells. We hypothesized that Asn can mitigate LPS-induced injury of intestinal structure and barrier function by regulating inflammatory signaling pathways. We executed the following experiment using weanling pigs for each of the groups: (1) non-challenged control; (2) LPS-challenged control; (3) LPS + 0.5% Asn; (4) LPS + 1.0% Asn. After 21-d feeding, pigs received an i.p. injection of either saline or LPS. Four h after injection, the mid-jejunum and mid-ileum samples were collected. We found that Asn restored ODC expression that was decreased by LPS treatment. Asn also restored intestinal morphology and barrier function that were impaired by LPS treatment. In addition, Asn down-regulated intestinal caspase-3 protein expression and TNF-α concentration, and decreased the mRNA expression of intestinal TLR4, TLR4 downstream signals (myeloid differentiation factor 88, IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 and TNF-α receptor-associated factor 6 and NOD1, NOD2 and their adaptor molecule (receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2). Moreover, Asn decreased p38 phosphorylation but increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Our results suggest that Asn improves intestinal integrity during an inflammatory insult, which appears to be related to the decrease of intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokine (via TLR4, NODs and p38) and of enterocyte apoptosis (via p38 and ERK1/2).

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Pro-inflammatory cytokines play a critical role in the pathophysiology of muscle atrophy. We hypothesized that glycine exerted an anti-inflammatory effect and alleviated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced muscle atrophy in piglets. Pigs were assigned to four treatments including the following: 1) nonchallenged control, 2) LPS-challenged control, 3) LPS+1.0% glycine, and 4) LPS+2.0% glycine. After receiving the control, 1.0 or 2.0% glycine-supplemented diets, piglets were treated with either saline or LPS. At 4 h after treatment with saline or LPS, blood and muscle samples were harvested. We found that 1.0 or 2.0% glycine increased protein/DNA ratio, protein content, and RNA/DNA ratio in gastrocnemius or longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles. Glycine also resulted in decreased mRNA expression of muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx) and muscle RING finger 1 (MuRF1) in gastrocnemius muscle. In addition, glycine restored the phosphorylation of Akt, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), eukaryotic initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), and Forkhead Box O 1 (FOXO1) in gastrocnemius or LD muscles. Furthermore, glycine resulted in decreased plasma tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) concentration and muscle TNF-α mRNA abundance. Moreover, glycine resulted in decreased mRNA expresson of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain protein 2 (NOD2), and their respective downstream molecules in gastrocnemius or LD muscles. These results indicate glycine enhances muscle protein mass under an inflammatory condition. The beneficial roles of glycine on the muscle are closely associated with maintaining Akt-mTOR-FOXO1 signaling and suppressing the activation of TLR4 and/or NOD2 signaling pathways.

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Stress induces injury in intestinal barrier function in piglets. Long-chain n-3 PUFA have been shown to exhibit potential immunomodulatory and barrier protective effects in animal models and clinical trials. In addition, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)/CRH receptor (CRHR) signalling pathways play an important role in stress-induced alterations of intestinal barrier function. We hypothesised that fish oil could affect intestinal barrier function and CRH/CRHR signalling pathways. In total, thirty-two weaned pigs were allocated to one of four treatments. The experiment consisted of a 2×2 factorial design, and the main factors included immunological challenge (saline or lipopolysaccharide (LPS)) and diet (5 % maize oil or 5 % fish oil). On d 19 of the trial, piglets were treated with saline or LPS. At 4 h after injection, all pigs were killed, and the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), liver, spleen and intestinal samples were collected. Fish oil decreased bacterial translocation incidence and the number of translocated micro-organisms in the MLN. Fish oil increased intestinal claudin-1 protein relative concentration and villus height, as well as improved the intestinal morphology. In addition, fish oil supplementation increased intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte number and prevented elevations in intestinal mast cell and neutrophil numbers induced by LPS challenge. Moreover, fish oil tended to decrease the mRNA expression of intestinal CRHR1, CRH and glucocorticoid receptors. These results suggest that fish oil supplementation improves intestinal barrier function and inhibits CRH/CRHR1 signalling pathway and mast cell tissue density.

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