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Objective: To describe the frequency of antimicrobial resistance rates and spatial-temporal distribution of Shigella species from the last 10 years in Peru. Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out. A total of 1668 Shigella strains, remitted as part of the national enteric pathogen surveillance from 2011 to 2020, were analysed. The strains were confirmed by conventional tests and serotyped with polyvalent and monovalent antibodies. Also, antimicrobial susceptibility was performed according to the Kirby-Bauer method. Results: The most frequent Shigella species was S. sonnei (49.2%), followed by S. flexneri (42.2%), S. boydii (7.9%) and S. dysenteriae (0.7%). Phase II (46.29%) was the most frequent serotype in S. sonnei, serotype 2a (43.61%) in S. flexneri, serotype 2 in S. boydii and serotype 4 in S. dysenteriae. High rates of resistance were detected for trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (91.0%), tetracycline (88.4%), ampicillin (73.9%) and chloramphenicol (64.9%), moderate rates for amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (25.1%), ciprofloxacin (16.7%) and nalidixic acid (14.8%), and low rates for cefotaxime (1.74%), nitrofurantoin (0.7%) and ceftazidime (0.6%). Moreover, antimicrobial resistance to fluoroquinolones increased considerably from 2017 to 2020. Conclusion: S. sonnei was the most frequent species, which have a large proportion of strains resistant to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, and a growing trend of resistance to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. This increase in resistance to commonly used antibiotics in treatments is alarming, threatening the control and management of these currently treatable infections.

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Global warming is drastically altering weather patterns, accentuating the frequency and strength of global events such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation. This alteration is driving the spread of diseases sensitive to climate such as diarrheal diseases. Environmental monitoring through remote sensing, in combination with data from epidemiological surveillance programs, is facilitating the study of infectious disease dynamics associated with El Niño. This integrative approach can inform the development of strategies for mitigating the impact of these diseases on public health. Here, we discuss some of the achievements of this approach in the management, control, and prevention of infectious diseases linked to El Niño.

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The epidemiological dynamics of V. parahaemolyticus´ infections have been characterized by the abrupt appearance of outbreaks in remote areas where these diseases had not been previously detected, without knowing the routes of entry of the pathogens in the new area. However, there are recent studies that show the link between the appearance of epidemic outbreaks of Vibrio and environmental factors such as oceanic transport of warm waters, which has provided a possible mechanism for the dispersion of Vibrio diseases globally. Despite this evidence, there is little information on the possible routes of entry and transport of infectious agents from endemic countries to the entire world. In this sense, the recent advances in genomic sequencing tools are making it possible to infer possible biogeographical patterns of diverse pathogens with relevance in public health like V. parahaemolyticus. In this chapter, we will address several general aspects about V. parahaemolyticus, including their microbiological and genetic detection, main virulence factors, and the epidemiology of genotypes involved in foodborne outbreaks globally.

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Campylobacter jejuni infection is considered the most frequent factor associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS). In 2019, a large outbreak of GBS was detected in Peru, being associated with C. jejuni detected in stool samples from these patients. The aim of this study was to determine the molecular epidemiology of C. jejuni strains (ST-2993) associated with a large GBS outbreak in Peru. In this study, 26 C. jejuni strains belonging to the ST-2293, obtained from 2019 to 2020, were sequenced using Illumina technology. Five low-quality sequences were removed using bioinformatics, and 21 genomes (17 clinical strains and 4 chicken strains) were considered in the phylogenetic analysis and comparative genomics. Phylogenetic reconstruction, including genomes from international databases, showed a connection between Peruvian and Chinese GBS strains, both of them having lipooligosaccharides (LOS) locus genes related to molecular mimicry with gangliosides in peripheral nerves. Also, ST-2993 was detected in Amazon strains recovered many years before the 2019 outbreak, but with no epidemiological connection with GBS. Besides, a close relationship between human and chicken C. jejuni strains indicated chicken as one of the probable reservoirs. Finally, comparative genomics revealed differences between Chinese and Peruvian strains, including the presence of a prophage inserted into the genome. In conclusion, C. jejuni ST-2993 strains recovered from the GBS outbreak are closely related to Peruvian Amazon strains. Moreover, ST-2993 has been circulated in Peru since 2003 in the Peruvian Amazonia, showing the necessity to reinforce the epidemiological surveillance of C. jejuni to improve the prevention and control of future GBS outbreaks. IMPORTANCE This article describes the molecular epidemiology of C. jejuni strains (ST-2993) associated with a large Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) outbreak in Peru, sequencing several strains recovered from GBS patients and chickens from 2019 to 2020. Phylogenetic analysis showed a connection between Peruvian and Chinese GBS strains, both of them having lipooligosaccharides (LOS) locus genes related to molecular mimicry with gangliosides in peripheral nerves. Also, ST-2993 strains were detected in isolates recovered many years before the 2019 outbreak, but with no epidemiological connection with GBS. Besides, a close relationship between human and chicken strains indicated those animals as a probable reservoir. This information will help to understand the real situation of GBS in Peru and its causal agent, C. jejuni ST-2993, showing the necessity to increase epidemiological tracking of these kinds of pathogens to detect them and avoid GBS outbreaks in the future.

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BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic remains the main public health problem, due to the quick and easy dissemination of the causal agent, SARS-CoV-2 virus, around the world. Since the beginning of the pandemic, an opportune laboratory diagnosis has been critical to respond this emergency, and RT-qPCR has been used as reference molecular tests for detection of SARS-CoV-2. METHODS: In this study, we performed the evaluation of a RT-qPCR SMARTCHEK platform (SMARTCHEK, Genesystem) for SARS-CoV-2 detection based on the amplification of RdRp and N gene markers. The platform was evaluated with nasopharyngeal swab samples corresponding to 360 suspected cases of COVID-19 which were remitted to Instituto Nacional de Salud in Peru. This quick method was compared with conventional RT-qPCR as gold standard. RESULTS: The RT-qPCR SMARTCHEK showed a 98.1% sensitivity (CI: 93.3-99.8%), a 98.8% specificity (CI: 96.6-99.8%), a 97.2% positive predictive value (CI: 92-99.4%) and a 99.2% negative predictive value (CI: 97.2-99.9%). The assay demonstrated a strong agreement between the RT-qPCR SMARTCHEK and conventional RT-qPCR (kappa value ≥ 0.966). CONCLUSION: The RT-qPCR SMARTCHEK is a platform that gives reliable and fast results, with high sensitivity and specificity for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, and it will be considered a suitable alternative to COVID-19 diagnosis in low-resource settings.

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The main strategy for response and control of COVID-19 demands the use of rapid, accurate diagnostic tests aimed at the first point of health care. During the emergency, an increase in asymptomatic and symptomatic cases results in a great demand for molecular tests, which is promoting the development and application of rapid diagnostic technologies. In this study, we describe the development and evaluation of RT-LAMP to detect SARS-CoV-2 based on three genes (ORF1ab, M and N genes) in monoplex and triplex format. RT-LAMP assays were compared with the gold standard method RT-qPCR. The triplex format (RdRp, M and N genes) allowed obtaining comparable results with de RT-qPCR (RdRp and E genes), presented a sensitivity of 98.9% and a specificity of 97.9%, opening the opportunity to apply this method to detect SARS-CoV-2 at primary health-care centers.

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Campylobacter is the leading cause of human bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide and has a major impact on global public health. Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) is a powerful tool applied in the study of foodborne pathogens. The objective of the present study was to apply WGS to determine the genetic diversity, virulence factors and determinants of antimicrobial resistance of the populations of C. jejuni and C. coli in Peru. A total of 129 Campylobacter strains (108 C. jejuni and 21 C. coli) were sequenced using Illumina Miseq platform. In silico MLST analysis identified a high genetic diversity among those strains with 30 sequence types (STs), several of them within 11 clonal complexes (CC) for C. jejuni, while the strains of C. coli belonged to a single CC with 8 different STs. Phylogeny analysis showed that Peruvian C. jejuni strains were divided into 2 clades with 5 populations, while C. coli formed a single clade with 4 populations. Furthermore, in silico analyses showed the presence of several genes associated with adherence, colonization and invasion among both species: cadF (83.7%), jlpA (81.4%), racR (100%), dnaJ (83.7%), pebA (83.7%), pldA (82.1%), porA (84.5%), ceuE (82.9%), ciaB (78.3%), iamB (86.8%), and flaC (100%). The majority (82.9%) of the Campylobacter strains carried the cdtABC operon which code for cytolethal distending toxin (CDT). Half of them (50.4%) carried genes associated with the presence of T6SS, while the frequency of genes associated with T4SS were relatively low (11.6%). Genetic markers associated with resistance to quinolones, tetracycline (tetO, tetW/N/W), beta-lactamases (blaoxa-61 ), macrolides (A2075G in 23S rRNA) were found in 94.5, 21.7, 66.7, 6.2, 69.8, and 18.6% of strains, respectively. The cmeABC multidrug efflux operon was present in 78.3% of strains. This study highlights the importance of using WGS in the surveillance of emerging pathogens associated with foodborne diseases, providing genomic information on genetic diversity, virulence mechanisms and determinants of antimicrobial resistance. The description of several Campylobacter genotypes having many virulence factors and resistance to quinolones and tetracyclines circulating in Peru provides important information which helps in the monitoring, control and prevention strategies of this emerging pathogen in our country.

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Salmonella Enteritidis, an important foodborne zoonosis, has a dramatically increased number of cases around the world. To explore the phylogenetic structure of Peruvian Salmonella Enteritidis strains and their relationship with an outbreak occurred in 2018, we analyzed a comprehensive strains of S. Enteritidis received by the National Institute of Health during the period 2000-2018. A total of 180 strains were characterized by microbiological procedures, serotyping and whole genome sequencing. Based on genome sequences annotated, virulence factors and accessory genes were identified. Phylogenetic and population structure analysis were also analyzed based on SNPs. The phylogenetic analysis grouped the genomes into two well-supported clades that were consistent with population structure analysis. The clinical and food strains corresponding to the outbreak were included in the same cluster, which presented the sdhA gene, related to the increase of the virulence of this pathogen. The phylogenetic relationship of Peruvian S. Enteritidis suggests the presence of four S. enteritidis population with high epidemiological importance.

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RESUMEN Con el objetivo de describir las características genómicas relacionadas con la resistencia antimicrobiana y genómica comparativa de Escherichia coli diarreogénica (DEC), se sometieron a secuenciamiento genómico catorce aislamientos de DEC del banco de cepas del Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS). Las secuencias obtenidas se analizaron mediante procedimientos bioinformáticos a fin de buscar genes de resistencia microbiana y regiones genéticas relacionadas con patotipos y filogrupos. Se detectaron diversos determinantes de resistencia antimicrobiana, se destaca la producción de betalactamasas y mutaciones asociadas a la resistencia a quinolonas. Además, se observaron aislamientos de un mismo patotipo agrupados en distintos filogrupos. El análisis de genómica comparativa mostró un mayor número de genes ortólogos en aislamientos que pertenecían al mismo patotipo y filogrupo. Sobre la base de lo estudiado, los aislamientos de DEC en Lima, Perú, presentan resistencia a múltiples fármacos, y se detectaron varios patotipos y filogrupos con diversidad molecular y filogenética.

ABSTRACT In order to describe the genomic characteristics related to antimicrobial resistance and comparative genomics of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC), 14 DEC isolates from the strain collection of the Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS) were subjected to genome sequencing. We used bioinformatic procedures to analyze the obtained sequences in order to look for microbial resistance genes and genetic regions related to pathotypes and phylogroups. Several antimicrobial resistance determinants were detected, but the production of beta-lactamases and mutations associated to quinolone resistance were the most relevant. Additionally, we observed isolates of the same pathotype grouped in different phylogroups. The comparative genomics analysis showed a greater number of orthologous genes in isolates from the same pathotype and phylogroup. In conclusion, DEC isolates from Lima, Peru, showed resistance to multiple drugs; likewise, molecular and phylogenetic diversity was observed in several pathotypes and phylogroups.

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During the period from 1995 to 2017, in order to determine the diversity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus pathogenic variants in Peru, 102 Peruvian genomes (97 from a hospital setting and 5 from an out-of-hospital setting) were analyzed using the multilocus typification scheme and BLASTn in the search for virulence genes. Fifteen different sequence types were identified. It was found that the ST3 genotype, which is found in the pandemic clone, was the most abundant, with 52% (n=53); followed by ST120, with 23.5% (n=24); and the CC345 clonal complex, with 11.8% (n=12). A total of 89 analyzed strains presented genes encoding the pathogenicity island VpaI-7 (87.3%), while 96 presented the tdh gene (94.1%), and 6 the trh gene (5.9%). The ST3 genotype was the predominant one during the evaluated period, this genotype was the cause of a major outbreak in Peru's past history. Other pathogenic genotypes found represent a latent public health risk associated with seafood consumption.

Con el objetivo de determinar la diversidad de variantes patogénicas de Vibrio parahaemolyticus en el Perú durante el periodo 1995-2017, se analizaron 102 genomas peruanos (97 clínicos y 5 ambientales) empleando el esquema de tipificación multilocus y BLASTn para la búsqueda de genes de virulencia. Se identificaron 15 tipos de secuencia diferentes, encontrándose que el genotipo ST3, perteneciente al clon pandémico, fue el más abundante, con 52% (n=53); seguido por el ST120, con 23,5% (n=24); y el complejo clonal CC345, con 11,8% (n=12). Un total de 89 cepas analizadas presentaron genes que codifican la isla de patogenicidad VpaI-7 (87,3%), mientras que 96 presentaron el gen tdh (94,1%), y 6, el trh (5,9%). Durante el periodo evaluado, se resalta la predominancia del ST3, causante de un importante brote en el pasado del Perú, además de otros genotipos patógenos que representan un riesgo latente en salud pública asociado al consumo de alimentos marinos.

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RESUMEN Con el objetivo de determinar la diversidad de variantes patogénicas de Vibrio parahaemolyticus en el Perú durante el periodo 1995-2017, se analizaron 102 genomas peruanos (97 clínicos y 5 ambientales) empleando el esquema de tipificación multilocus y BLASTn para la búsqueda de genes de virulencia. Se identificaron 15 tipos de secuencia diferentes, encontrándose que el genotipo ST3, perteneciente al clon pandémico, fue el más abundante, con 52% (n=53); seguido por el ST120, con 23,5% (n=24); y el complejo clonal CC345, con 11,8% (n=12). Un total de 89 cepas analizadas presentaron genes que codifican la isla de patogenicidad VpaI-7 (87,3%), mientras que 96 presentaron el gen tdh (94,1%), y 6, el trh (5,9%). Durante el periodo evaluado, se resalta la predominancia del ST3, causante de un importante brote en el pasado del Perú, además de otros genotipos patógenos que representan un riesgo latente en salud pública asociado al consumo de alimentos marinos.

ABSTRACT During the period from 1995 to 2017, in order to determine the diversity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus pathogenic variants in Peru, 102 Peruvian genomes (97 from a hospital setting and 5 from an out-of-hospital setting) were analyzed using the multilocus typification scheme and BLASTn in the search for virulence genes. Fifteen different sequence types were identified. It was found that the ST3 genotype, which is found in the pandemic clone, was the most abundant, with 52% (n=53); followed by ST120, with 23.5% (n=24); and the CC345 clonal complex, with 11.8% (n=12). A total of 89 analyzed strains presented genes encoding the pathogenicity island VpaI-7 (87.3%), while 96 presented the tdh gene (94.1%), and 6 the trh gene (5.9%). The ST3 genotype was the predominant one during the evaluated period, this genotype was the cause of a major outbreak in Peru's past history. Other pathogenic genotypes found represent a latent public health risk associated with seafood consumption.

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In order to describe the genomic characteristics related to antimicrobial resistance and comparative genomics of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC), 14 DEC isolates from the strain collection of the Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS) were subjected to genome sequencing. We used bioinformatic procedures to analyze the obtained sequences in order to look for microbial resistance genes and genetic regions related to pathotypes and phylogroups. Several antimicrobial resistance determinants were detected, but the production of beta-lactamases and mutations associated to quinolone resistance were the most relevant. Additionally, we observed isolates of the same pathotype grouped in different phylogroups. The comparative genomics analysis showed a greater number of orthologous genes in isolates from the same pathotype and phylogroup. In conclusion, DEC isolates from Lima, Peru, showed resistance to multiple drugs; likewise, molecular and phylogenetic diversity was observed in several pathotypes and phylogroups.

Con el objetivo de describir las características genómicas relacionadas con la resistencia antimicrobiana y genómica comparativa de Escherichia coli diarreogénica (DEC), se sometieron a secuenciamiento genómico catorce aislamientos de DEC del banco de cepas del Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS). Las secuencias obtenidas se analizaron mediante procedimientos bioinformáticos a fin de buscar genes de resistencia microbiana y regiones genéticas relacionadas con patotipos y filogrupos. Se detectaron diversos determinantes de resistencia antimicrobiana, se destaca la producción de betalactamasas y mutaciones asociadas a la resistencia a quinolonas. Además, se observaron aislamientos de un mismo patotipo agrupados en distintos filogrupos. El análisis de genómica comparativa mostró un mayor número de genes ortólogos en aislamientos que pertenecían al mismo patotipo y filogrupo. Sobre la base de lo estudiado, los aislamientos de DEC en Lima, Perú, presentan resistencia a múltiples fármacos, y se detectaron varios patotipos y filogrupos con diversidad molecular y filogenética.

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