RESUMEN
As one of the largest waste streams, electronic waste (e-waste) production continues to grow in response to global demand for consumer electronics. This waste is often shipped to developing countries where it is disassembled and recycled. In many cases, e-waste recycling activities are conducted in informal settings with very few controls or protections in place for workers. These activities involve exposure to hazardous substances such as cadmium, lead, and brominated flame retardants and are frequently performed by women and children. Although recycling practices and exposures vary by scale and geographic region, we present case studies of e-waste recycling scenarios and intervention approaches to reduce or prevent exposures to the hazardous substances in e-waste that may be broadly applicable to diverse situations. Drawing on parallels identified in these cases, we discuss the future prevention and intervention strategies that recognize the difficult economic realities of informal e-waste recycling.
Asunto(s)
Países en Desarrollo , Residuos Electrónicos/análisis , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/prevención & control , Reciclaje/estadística & datos numéricos , Administración de Residuos/estadística & datos numéricos , Asia , Países en Desarrollo/estadística & datos numéricos , Ghana , Humanos , UruguayRESUMEN
Soil mercury concentrations at a typical small-scale mine site in the Bolivian Andes were elevated (28-737 mg/kg or ppm) in localized areas where mercury amalgams were either formed or vaporized to release gold, but was not detectable beyond approximately 10 m from its sources. Arsenic was measurable, exceeding known background levels throughout the mine site (77-137,022 ppm), and was also measurable through the local village of Ingenio (36-1803 ppm). Although arsenic levels were high at all surveyed locations, its spatial pattern followed mercury, being highest where mercury was high.
Asunto(s)
Arsénico/análisis , Monitoreo del Ambiente , Mercurio/análisis , Contaminantes del Suelo/análisis , Suelo/química , Altitud , Oro , MineríaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: In Mexico, artisans frequently use lead oxide or greta in order to produce utensils, which are destined to preparation and storage of food and drinks. Additionally, the risk of lead poisoning of artisans and their families is greater than in general population, and within these families, children are the most susceptible to lead poisoning. The aim of this study was to estimate IQ loss in Mexican children from potter families exposed to lead. METHODS: Lead concentrations in soil were determined in 19 potter's homes that functioned as pottery workshops in seven Mexican states between 2009 and 2012. This information was used to estimate blood lead levels through the integrated exposure uptake biokinetic (IEUBK) model. The loss of IQ points was then estimated according to the Lanphear and Schwartz models. RESULTS: The mean lead concentration found in the workshops' soil was 1098.4 ppm. Blood lead levels estimated in children under 8 years old were 26.4 µg/dL and the loss of IQ points comprised from 7.13 to 8.84 points depending on the model. CONCLUSIONS: It is possible that 11 children from families of artisans in Mexico may be losing between 7.13 to 8.84 IQ points, due to lead exposure in their houses-workshops. This loss in IQ points could have important health, economic and social impacts.
Introducción: en México, los alfareros continúan usando frecuentemente el óxido de plomo o greta para producir utensilios, los cuales se destinan a la preparación y almacenamiento de alimentos y bebidas. Adicionalmente, el riesgo de intoxicación por plomo de los alfareros y sus familias es mayor que en la población general, y en tales familias, los niños son los más susceptibles a la intoxicación por plomo. El objetivo del estudio fue estimar la pérdida de puntos de coeficiente intelectual (CI) en hijos de alfareros mexicanos expuestos al plomo. Métodos: durante el periodo de 2009 a 2012 se determinaron las concentraciones de plomo en suelo de 19 casas-talleres de alfareros en siete estados mexicanos. Esta información se utilizó para estimar el nivel de plomo en sangre, por medio del modelo biocinético integrado de absorción por exposición (IEUBK, por sus siglas en inglés). Posteriormente, se calcularon los puntos perdidos de CI según los modelos de Schwartz y Lanphear. Resultados: la concentración promedio de plomo en suelo fue de 1098.4 ppm. Se estimó un nivel de plomo en sangre de 26.4 µg/dL para menores de 8 años. La pérdida de puntos de CI estimada fue 7.13 y 8.84, según el modelo utilizado. Conclusión: es posible que al menos 11 niños de familias alfareras mexicanas estén perdiendo entre 7.13 y 8.84 puntos de CI, debido a la exposición al plomo en sus casas-talleres, lo que supone importantes impactos económicos, sociales y de salud.
Asunto(s)
Utensilios de Comida y Culinaria , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Inteligencia/efectos de los fármacos , Intoxicación del Sistema Nervioso por Plomo en la Infancia/etiología , Niño , Preescolar , Estudios Transversales , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/análisis , Contaminantes Ambientales/análisis , Femenino , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Pruebas de Inteligencia , Plomo/análisis , Intoxicación del Sistema Nervioso por Plomo en la Infancia/diagnóstico , Intoxicación del Sistema Nervioso por Plomo en la Infancia/epidemiología , Masculino , México/epidemiología , Características de la Residencia , Factores de Riesgo , Suelo/químicaRESUMEN
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) offers low-skilled workers an opportunity to elevate themselves out of poverty. However, this industry operates with little to no pollution controls and the cost to the environment and human health can be large. The objectives of this study were to measure levels of arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) in the environment and characterize health risks to miners and residents in an area with active ASGM operations. An exposure assessment was conducted at two different mining sites and a nearby village in the Bolivian Anders. The resulting measurements were then used to quantify cancerous and noncancerous health risks to children and adults working at and living near ASGM areas. Soil concentrations of As were well above background levels and showed great variations between the village and mining area. Mercury vapor levels at the two mining sites were approximately 30 times larger than the EPA reference concentration. The risk of developing non-cancerous health effects were primarily due to exposure to As and Hg. The probability of individuals developing cancer was considerably increased with adult miners having a probability of 1.3 out of 100. Cancer potential was driven by exposure to As, with de minimus cancer risk from all other elements. Based on the environmental characterization of elements in soils and Hg vapors, the risk of developing cancerous and non-cancerous health outcomes were above a level of concern based on EPA risk assessment guidance. Personal protective equipment was not worn by workers and Hg amalgam is commonly heated in workers' homes. Better education of the risks of ASGM is needed as well as simple controls to reduce exposure.
Asunto(s)
Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/análisis , Minería/métodos , Exposición Profesional/análisis , Administración por Inhalación , Adolescente , Adulto , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Contaminantes Ocupacionales del Aire/análisis , Arsénico/administración & dosificación , Arsénico/análisis , Arsénico/toxicidad , Bolivia , Carcinógenos/análisis , Carcinógenos/toxicidad , Niño , Humanos , Mercurio/administración & dosificación , Mercurio/análisis , Mercurio/toxicidad , Metales/administración & dosificación , Metales/análisis , Metales/toxicidad , Medición de Riesgo , Piel/efectos de los fármacos , Contaminantes del Suelo/análisisRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Though lead contaminated waste sites have been widely researched in many high-income countries, their prevalence and associated health outcomes have not been well documented in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: Using the well-established health metric disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and an exposure assessment method developed by Chatham-Stephens et al., we estimated the burden of disease resulting from exposure to lead at toxic waste sites in three Latin American countries in 2012: Argentina, Mexico and Uruguay. Toxic waste sites identified through Pure Earth's Toxic Sites Identification Program (TSIP) were screened for lead in both biological and environmental sample media. Estimates of cardiovascular disease incidence and other outcomes resulting from exposure to lead were utilized to estimate DALYs for each population at risk. RESULTS: Approximately 316,703 persons in three countries were at risk of exposure to pollutants at 129 unique sites identified through the TSIP database. Exposure to lead was estimated to result in between 51,432 and 115,042 DALYs, depending on the weighting factor used. The estimated burden of disease caused by exposure to lead in this analysis is comparable to that estimated for Parkinson's disease and bladder cancer in these countries. CONCLUSIONS: Lead continues to pose a significant public health risk in Argentina, Mexico, and Uruguay. The burden of disease in these three countries is comparable with other widely recognized public health challenges. Knowledge of the relatively high number of DALYs associated with lead exposure may be used to generate support and funding for the remediation of toxic waste sites in these countries and others.
Asunto(s)
Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Ambientales/análisis , Sitios de Residuos Peligrosos , Plomo/análisis , Adolescente , Adulto , Argentina/epidemiología , Contaminantes Ambientales/sangre , Femenino , Humanos , Plomo/sangre , Masculino , México/epidemiología , Persona de Mediana Edad , Años de Vida Ajustados por Calidad de Vida , Uruguay/epidemiología , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Although there has been success in reducing lead exposure with the phase-out of leaded gasoline, exposure to lead in Mexico continues to threaten the health of millions, much of which is from lead-based glazes used in pottery that leaches into food. OBJECTIVES: An extensive historical review and analysis of available data on blood lead levels in Mexican populations was conducted. We used a calculated geometric mean to evaluate the effect of lead on the pediatric burden of disease. METHODS: An extensive bibliographic search identified 83 published articles from 1978 to 2010 with blood lead level (BLL) data in Mexican populations representing 150 data points from more than 50,000 study participants. Values from these publications were categorized into various groupings. We then calculated the incidence of disease and disability-adjusted life-years resulting from these BLLs using the World Health Organization's burden of disease spreadsheets for mild mental retardation. RESULTS: Reviewing all relevant studies, the geometric means of Mexican BLLs in urban and rural areas were found to be 8.85 and 22.24 ug/dL, respectively. Since the phase-out of leaded gasoline, the mean in urban areas was found to be 5.36 ug/dL and the average in rural areas is expected to be much higher. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) upper limit of blood lead in children under the age of 6 years is 5 ug/dL and the current U.S. average is 1.2 ug/dL. Our results indicate that more than 15% of the population will experience a decrement of more than 5 IQ points from lead exposure. The analysis also leads us to believe that lead is responsible for 820,000 disability-adjusted life-years for lead-induced mild mental retardation for children aged 0 to 4 years. CONCLUSION: Lead continues to threaten the health of millions and remains a significant cause of disability in Mexico. Additional interventions in reducing or managing lead-based ceramic glazes are necessary to protect the public health.
Asunto(s)
Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Discapacidad Intelectual/epidemiología , Plomo/sangre , Plomo/toxicidad , Preescolar , Humanos , Incidencia , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Discapacidad Intelectual/inducido químicamente , México/epidemiología , Población Rural , Población UrbanaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), chemical exposures in the environment due to hazardous waste sites and toxic pollutants are typically poorly documented and their health impacts insufficiently quantified. Furthermore, there often is only limited understanding of the health and environmental consequences of point source pollution problems, and little consensus on how to assess and rank them. The contributions of toxic environmental exposures to the global burden of disease are not well characterized. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to describe the simple but effective approach taken by Blacksmith Institute's Toxic Sites Identification Program to quantify and rank toxic exposures in LMICs. This system is already in use at more than 3000 sites in 48 countries such as India, Indonesia, China, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Ukraine. METHODS: A hazard ranking system formula, the Blacksmith Index (BI), takes into account important factors such as the scale of the pollution source, the size of the population possibly affected, and the exposure pathways, and is designed for use reliably in low-resource settings by local personnel provided with limited training. FINDINGS: Four representative case studies are presented, with varying locations, populations, pollutants, and exposure pathways. The BI was successfully applied to assess the extent and severity of environmental pollution problems at these sites. CONCLUSIONS: The BI is a risk-ranking tool that provides direct and straightforward characterization, quantification, and prioritization of toxic pollution sites in settings where time, money, or resources are limited. It will be an important and useful tool for addressing toxic pollution problems in LMICs. Although the BI does not have the sophistication of the US Environmental Protection Agency's Hazard Ranking System, the case studies presented here document the effectiveness of the BI in the field, especially in low-resource settings. Understanding of the risks posed by toxic pollution sites helps assure better use of resources to manage sites and mitigate risks to public health. Quantification of these hazards is an important input to assessments of the global burden of disease.